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Did you ever think that your geography class might be 
made more interesting if you took more interest in posting 
yourself? A few years ago the text-book was the only ma- 
terial for the teacher and pupil ; but now there are a number 
of valuable books that will, if you read and put the ideas 
gathered in practice, make your class glow with interest — 
hence what they learn will stick. 

All these books and 975 others are described in our new 
catalogue. It is a helper to better methods. Sent for 6 
cents stamps (less than cost.) 



The Educational Building, 61 E. 9th St., 


NEW YORK. 


GEOGRAPHY PY OBJECTIVE METHODS. 


GEOGRAPHY 

BY MAP DRAWING. 


THE CONSTRUCTION OF POLITICAL AND NATURAL GEOGRAPHICAL 
FORMS ON THE BLACKBOARD, IN SAND, PAPER AND IN CLAY. 




AMOS M. KELLOGG, A.M., 


Editor of The School Journal and The Teachers’ Institute. 



X 

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NEW YORK and CHICAGO. 


E. L. KELLOGG & CO., 

1893. 



Copyright, 1893, by 


E. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK 


GEOGRAPHY BY MAP DRAWING. 


PREFACE. 


The history of the evolution of methods suggested in this little book may interest 
those who use it. When I was put in charge of the Training Department of the Albany, 
N. Y., State Normal School, I found in operation the plan of copying the maps of the geogra- 
phy on the blackboards. It gave so good an appearance to the w T alls and made the patrons of 
the school so proud that I continued it ; but I could not discover the educational results. 
I sought for a result of this so-called “ map drawing.” About this time I read in one of 
Horace Mann’s reports a graphic description of the methods used in some German school 
he visited in which the teacher created the map ; I felt this was the true method. 

Some years after Prof. S. A. Felter (he has been for many years Deputy State Supt. 
of Schools in Kansas), was my assistant, and aroused my attention by the remarkable re- 
sults produced with primary children by sketching maps of the separate states and allowing 
them to do the same. As an instructor in geography in the Michigan Teachers' Institutes 
I began to sketch maps myself with much hesitancy ; but 1 was surprised to see the interest 
created by these rough drawings ; I could not account for it then. But it was a discovery 
that I determined to utilize ; and in Bergen Institute, Jersey City, I elaborated and em- 
ployed for ten years the methods detailed in this volume and found they produced the most 
intense interest in the study of geography. I remember at one time after school hours 
coming upon a group of boys that had left a game of marbles and were watching one of 
their number sketch a map of a state upon the smooth surface of a flag-stone that was 
leaning against the fence ! I determined at some time to detail the methods I used. 

In 18S2 I attempted to outline them in The School Journal and The Teachers’ 
Institute but the heavy pressure on me as editor of these papers prevented a comple- 
tion of the task. Then ill-health came on and travel to regain it. I now attempt again 
to present these methods ; there will be apparent everywhere the lack of time and strength 
on my part to do justice to them. But as I know these sketches will be helpful and 
inspiring to a vast number of earnest teachers I send them forth. The volume consists 
mainly of a series of sketches of school-room work which the writer confesses to have 
enjoyed immensely. Selections only could be made ; every river, every chain of moun- 
tains, every important city could be a starting point tor other sketches. 

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 

i. There must be plenty of blackboard surface. (Three feet wide and four feet long 
for each pupil of the class is not too much.) There must be good crayons and brushes ; 


a yard-stick is useful ; it should have a hole near the end, that it may be suspended when 
not in use. 

2. The teacher must be able to draw the maps himself. This may seem an impos- 
sibility to many at first. But let the teacher have courage ; let him draw on the slate, 
on pieces of paper at odd bits of time until he acquires some freedom. The writer well 
remembers that he covered the envelopes and the letters in his pocket with maps when 
he struck out into this new field. The teacher may at first hold the geography before him, 
but it will deprive him of the influence of example that he will have by drawing from 
memory. 

3. The teacher must be able to stand near his map and talk interestingly about it. 
Hence he must read largely. 

4. The teacher must aim at rapid work. Two minutes is usually enough for a state. 
When the pupils have had considerable practice Ohio can be drawn in one minute. (The 
writer has had two pupils draw the entire U. S. in twenty minutes.) 

5. The teacher must encourage all work, no matter how crude. 

6. The teacher must both in the drawing and the descriptions remember the peda- 
gogical principles of gradualism. Paint the outlines first ; it matters little if these be quite 
crude. Encourage and awaken an interest, keep on drawing and accuracy will be ac- 
quired. The usual method is to present all that can be learned about Ohio in one lesson; 
but the true method is to paint the great outlines and add something new day by day. 
Set the pupils to searching in the geography, the gazetteer and the history for new matter. 

7. Map drawing does not dispense with the use of a text-book ; it really compels 
the use of a book. The pupil will be found to examine the map and read the text with 
unusual care if he is to draw a map and locate the rivers and cities. But different text- 
books may be used by the class ; and again, pupils of all ages may be joined in classes ; in 
the country school all may be put in one class. The author has found pupils of ten 
years able to grasp the subject of geography along with those of sixteen years, when pre- 
sented in the concrete. The time of the recitation may be divided into three parts : (1) 
That taken by the teacher in drawing. (2) That taken by the pupils in drawing. (3) 
That taken by the pupils in explaining. 

8. There should be a geographical library ; a geographical gazetteer, a state map 
county map, history of the county, history of the state, all geographical text-books at* 
tainable, work of travel, guide books, etc. All of these should be accessible to the pupils 
and they should be encouraged to examine them. 

9. It will be well after a time to assign “topics” or “subjects” to the pupils. 
The teacher will write in a small book a list of subjects that seem suitable, such as “ Lake 


Erie,” “ Cincinnati,” “Mammoth Cave,” Szc. He gives one of these to one pupil, another 
to another, &c., until each member of the class has one to study ; during the lesson 
while maps are being drawn, a pupil is called on to tell all he can about “ Lake Erie.” 
For general exercises these may form an important part — such as “ Mammoth Cave,” 
“ Niagara Falls,” “ Lake Champlain” (and its battles), “ Boston,” “ West Point,” &c. 

CAUTIONS. 

1. Do not be too minute as to the proportions of a state. Example: that Ohio is 
drawn about as high as wide, that Ind. is twice as long as wide is accurate enough for 

the end in view. Do not over-burden the memory. Let the pupil learn to draw by the 
looks , rather than by remembered measurments. In this volume about all the measure- 
ments that the pupil needs to commit to memory is stated under proportion and comparison 
— usually one for each state. 

2. Do not expect fine work, you are not attempting to make engravers. If you wish 
a fine map, let the book be used. Yet teach the pupils to draw as well as the time will 
allow. 

3. Give but few facts at the first attempt on a state ; add new ones day by day (see 
suggestions). 


4. Do not tell the pupil anything he can find out for himself. Example : When 

Albany is reached the teacher may say : There are four interesting events connected with 
this city ; if you cannot find them by I will tell you. 

5. Do not do anything the pupil can do for himself. Example : There may be a 
question as to the heights of mountains ; let the teacher assign to a pupil to “ report ” on 
that matter at the next recitation. 

New York, Jan, 1893. Amos M. Kellogg, 


i 


OTHER GEOGRAPHY HELPS 


Augsburg’s Easy Drawings for the Geography 

CLASS. Here are presented over 200 simple drawings that can be 
placed on the blackboard by any teacher, even the one ignorant of the 
simplest rules. An island, an isthmus, a cape, mountain ranges, animals, 
plants, etc,, are illustrated in profusion. Opposite each plate a practical 
lesson in geography is given. 

Quarto, 40 large plates, 90 pp. Price, 50 cents ; to teachers , 40 cents ; 
postage, 5 cents extra. 

Analytical Questions in Geography 

is the best and latest “ question book” in geography issued, for the 
following reasons : The questions are arranged in groups of 10, and 
carefully graded; they are accurately answered and up to date ; the an- 
swers are separate from questions in back of book. For preparing for 
examinations, or reviewing pupils, or as a reference book, this has no equal. 
It is as low in price as greatly inferior books. 

Nicely printed, and bound in cloth. Price, 50 cents; to teachers, 40 
cents ; postage 5 cents. 

OTHER BOOKS. 

Parker’s How to Study Geography, 

King’s How to Teach Geography, 

Frye’s Sand Modeling in Geography, 

Frye’s Brooks and Brook Basins, 

and all other helpful books published on geography are kept in stock by 
us at teachers 7 prices. Catalogue 6 cents. 


E, L. KELLOGG $ CO., The Educational Building, 61 E. 9t!l St, New York, 


I 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


Introduction. 

The facts proposed to the pupil in the usual text-book amount to 
many thousands; the learning of them is a serious difficulty, and a period' 
of several years is devoted to the task. To the teacher there is constantly 
presented the practical question, “How shall I lodge these facts quickly and 
securely in the memories of my pupils ?” Teachers of experience seem to 
agree that the drawing of maps will greatly aid in the acquisition of geogra- 
phical facts. 

But there is an increasing number of teachers who feel that the study 
of geography has a scientific basis, and who desire to do a better thing than 
merely accumulate facts in the pupil’s memory. To study geography means, 
to them, to study the earth, the Heaven-planned home of mankind, fitted 
up with immeasurable wisdom, securing his happiness and welfare, em- 
ploying his activities, accomplishing his development. 

The facts that are to' be learned about the earth concern a grand unity, 
and have an organic relation. The thoughtful teacher sees that geographi- 
cal facts are closely connected with geographical forms, and really are an 
expression of them. 

The teacher who looks at geography from a scientific standpoint says, 
“Hew can the subject be presented so that the structure and life of the 
earth may be impressed upon the pupil s mind ?” He feels that this may 


2 


Geography by Objective Methods. 

be accomplished best by engraving the geographical forms (so to speak) 
upon the memory, and then associating the facts with them. He accus- 
toms the pupil to produce the forms, and to express the facts relating to 
those forms. 

But there is another question asked by all teachers, whether they look 
at the subject from scientists’ or drill-masters’ point of view: “By what 

methods can the pupil be interested in geography?” 

It has long been known that the drawing of maps produces a great 
interest in the study of geography, and it is practiced by many teachers for 
that purpose alone. 

From whatever point of view it is pursued, comparatively little good 
will result, unless teacher and pupil pass from the stage of map-copying 
to that of map-creating. 

To merely copy a map with fidelity is not an operation that possesses 
much educational merit. To use earth-forms to give expression to earth- 
knowledge is quite another thing; it is like a piece of fine penmanship com- 
pared with the written page that comes from the hand of the thinker. 

The writer would urge the use of map-creating and map-building as a 
far more useful and interesting exercise than map-copying; especially does 
it arouse the deepest interest. 

The reasons why map-drawing, of the kind suggested, arouses so deep 
an interest, are mainly these : 

1. The eye of the pupil is addressed. 

2. He does something; he makes the maps. 

3. He talks about them in explaining them. 

4. He goes from the known to the unknown, beginning with his own 
state; he widens out on all sides, employing the concentric method — the 
method of nature. 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


3 


j. His acquired knowledge is easily blended with new knowledge by 
reviews, in which it is possible to infuse an interest. 

Practically, the teacher who employs the methods suggested will find 
(if he does not reach the geographer’s position) that he becomes certain as 
to the lodgment of knowledge. If the pupil can draw a map of Ohio, and 
locate its rivers and towns, that pupil must know Ohio. Even if the teacher 
has no time to hear the pupil explain all he has drawn, he feels that there is 
real progress. To those who have several grades and need to economize 
time in every way, these methods will be found invaluable; for while one 
class is reading, another can be drawing maps. 

Lesson I. 

Object of the Teacher. — To interest his pupils in the study of the 
state of Ohio; to present the main geographical features of the state, and to 
fix them firmly in the memory. 

Plan. — The teacher draws a map of the state, having the pupils name 
the lines drawn; then the pupils draw and describe. Thus he causes them 
to see Ohio, to bear about it, to draw it, to talk about it. 

Method. — Standing before his class, the teacher talks with the pupils 
in a bright and interesting manner about Ohio. 

There is one of our states that has had a very interesting history. Once 
the Indians lived in it; the remains of the mounds they built still remain; 
many fierce battles were fought with them. Now it has large and beautiful 
cities, well cultivated farms, and the people are peaceful and happy. It is 
Ohio. I will draw a map of the state. (Draws eastern boundary.) That 
is the eastern boundary of the state ; it separates Ohio from Pennsylvania. 
(Draws the Ohio river.) That is the Ohio river; it separates the state from 
West Virginia (points), and from Kentucky. (Draws northern boundary.) 
That is the shore of Lake Erie, which separates Ohio from Canada (points) ; 
that (points) separates Ohio from Michigan. (Draws western boundary.) 


4 


Geography by Objective Methods . 


This separates Ohio from Indiana. This, scholars, is the shape of the state 
of Ohio.* (See map i.) 



I will now draw the map again, and as I 
make the boundaries you may name them in con- 
cert. He draws the eastern boundary, and the 
class say: “Eastern boundary of Ohio — sep- 
arates Ohio from Pennsylvania.” He draws 
southern boundary, and the class say: “Ohio 

river — separates Ohio from West Virginia and 
Kentucky.” He draws northern boundary, and 
the class say: “ Lake Erie — separates Ohio from 
Canada; northern boundary of Ohio — separates 
Ohio from Michigan.” He draws the western 
boundary, and the class say: “Western boun- 
dary of Ohio — separates Ohio from Indiana.” 




Lesson II. 

The map is erased and is drawn again, and the lines named by the 
pupils again. It may be drawn a dozen times to give the class familiarity 
with the outline of the state and with the process of drawing it, and with 
the names and uses of the boundaries. 

For desk work the teacher will ask the class i 

to practice drawing the map of Ohio on their 
slates or on paper, preferably on paper. The 
paper maps should be signed and dated. Let 
the teacher put these in an envelope; by dating 
this envelope, the work of the pupils can be 
compared, and progress shown. On paper the 
size of the map may be i or i 1-2 inches each 
way. In drawing these maps, they may be 
allowed to examine their geographies all they 
wish. They may draw with the map before 
them if they choose. The main object is to have given great encouragement 
to try to draw the state. 


\ 




* The map should be about a foot square, so as to be easily seen across the room. 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


5 


Proportion. — He calls attention to the evi- 
dent general squareness of the state; that it is 
about as high as wide, and draws a square (map 
2), marking the right side into three equal parts, 
also the top. Then he cuts off the two triangles 
and hollows out the top (slightly elevating the 
east side; map 3). This the pupils follow. 
Thus the general shape is strongly impressed. 


Lesson III. 

The teacher will draw the map as before, 
and the pupils will name the boundaries. Then 
the teacher says: “But, scholars, there are 

some rivers in Ohio, are there not?” He draws the Maumee river, and 
gives its name. “That is the Maumee river;” and so of the rest of the 
rivers. Erasing the map, he will draw it again, and the pupils will name 
the rivers as he puts them in ; that is, when he draws the Maumee river 
they call out in concetr, “Maumee river; ” when he draws the Scioto, they 
announce, “Scioto river,” etc. He writes the names of the rivers on the 
blackboard, and has them copied by the pupils, his object being to deepen 
the impression, and fix the geographical features firmly in the memory. 
He will call for volunteers to draw the map and put in the rivers. Two min- 
utes are enough time to consume in this. Then the maps are erased, and 
drawn again by others. 

Caution. — It is a good plan to put in only a few of the rivers; not over 
five or six. Beware of overburdening the memory; a few facts to-day, a 
few more to-morrow, and a vast work may be done. Some new things 
to-day ; a repetition, with interest, of things already learned, are the sure 
steps to advancement. 

Here must also be observed the suggestions made already in respect 
to form. Expect crudeness, so if maps like this appear (map 4), praise them. 

' Here will be a good opportunity to speak of the forms of rivers. The pupils 
will tend to draw them too straight or too wavy. In the maps given they are 
made very plain, for it is the “beginning period; ” as the pupils acquire 



6 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


impetus, teach them to draw the rivers elegantly. Rivers love to wander 
along in graceful curves. This will not be appreciated until after many 
lessons; yet let the teacher hint at it at this point. (Map 5.) 


Lesson IV. 

The teacher will draw the map as before, and put in the rivers. 

“ But, scholars, there are some cities in our state; the largest city i will 
mark by 1, the next by 2, and so on.” Locating Cincinnati by the figure 1, 
he says, “That is Cincinnati,” and so of the rest of the cities. He writes 
the cities on the blackboard, and has them copied by the pupils. Thus 
they get a lesson in language. 

Erasing the map he will draw it again, and the pupils will name the 
boundaries, rivers, and cities in concert. Then he will call on volunteers 
to draw. As these draw, the pupils name the boundary, river, or city. 
This repetition of the names familiarizes the pupils with them. They see, 
they name, and make the thing that is named . As before, two minutes 
will suffice to draw the map and place in it ihe rivers and cities. (Map 6.) 

Let the teacher require rapidity (1) to ne- 
cessitate a study and drawing of the map by the 
pupil; (2) to obtain promptness; (3) to give all 
an opportunity to draw. 

By the use of figures the relative popula- 
tion of the cities is shown; thus a comparative 
value is fixed on the cities — a very important 
fact. Thus Cincinnati is the largest, as shown 
by the figure 1, etc. 

The suggestions already made to the 
teacher as to rough-drawn maps (which will 
surely appear at this stage), must be repeaced 
here. Do not expect elegance, or even accuracy. Do not place too high 
a standard before yourself. Encourage every effort; praise the work of the 
timid ones (of which there are many more in a school than teachers are 
aware of), and if a map at all like this (map 7) appears, bestow most liberal 



Geography by Objective Methods. 


7 



praise. If the teacher places a better map 
before the pupils, they will be sure to imitate 
it. Rub out some of the rivers on Mary's 
map, and put in better ones, saying nothing 
at all; put a neater coast-line on James' map; 
put neat figures on John's, etc. 

Caution. — Do not put in too many cities. 
Let the steps be taken very gradually. Begin 
with five or six cities; add others afterward, 
when these are learned. 

To Cultivate Expression.— The map being 
completed, the teacher takes the pointer in 
his hand, and, facing the class, says: “ I wish you to give careful attention; 
you may need to take notes of what I say, for I shall ask you to describe 
the map to-morrow. This is a map of Ohio. It is bounded on the north 
(pointing) by Michigan and Canada, from which it is separated by Lake 
Erie; on the east by Pennsylvania; on the southeast by West Virginia, from 
which the Ohio river separates it; on the southwest by Kentucky; it is 
separated therefrom by the Ohio river; on the west by Indiana. The chief 
rivers are the Maumee, which discharges into Lake Erie; the Scioto, which 
discharges into the Ohio, etc., etc. The chief cities are Cincinnati, in the 
southeastern part of the state, Cleveland,” etc. This is given as a model 
for the class, and the teacher will next ask pupils to volunteer to explain. 
Of course they will not be able to go into details at first; it must not be 
expected. But as the “ snow-ball” rolls over, it will gather more material. 

For desk work, the pupils can each draw a map (i 1-2x1 1-2 inches), 
write out the names of the rivers and cities, and what they can remember 
of the explanations. This doing employs them, pleases, gives a language 
lesson, a spelling lesson, and drawing lesson, teaches them to connect facts 
in an orderly manner about a given subject, and prepares them to learn 
more to-morrow. 


Lesson V. 

Object. — To show the relation of Ohio to Indiana, to acquire knowl- 
edge about Indiana, and to express the knowledge. 


8 


Geography by Objective Methods . 


The teacher draws the map of Ohio, and puts in the rivers and cities, 
doing it in a rapid, sketchy manner; the pupils will name the boundaries, 
the rivers and the cities as before. 

Having Ohio on the blackboard, the teacher proceeds: 

What state is on the west of Ohio ? 

“ Indiana.” 

I will draw Indiana, and you may name the boundaries. 

(Draws the southern boundary.) 

“ The Ohio river; separates from Kentucky.” 

(Draws the northern boundary.) 

“ Northern boundary of Indiana; separates from Michigan.” 

(Draws the western boundary.) 

“Western boundary of Indiana; separates from Illinois.” 

In a manner similar to that employed on Ohio, the rivers and the cities 
are indicated, and so the states of Indiana and Ohio are constructed. 
(Map 8.) 

The teacher will now 
erase the maps and construct 
them again ; then he will call 
for volunteers. (See Lesson 
IV.) Then he will assign 
them as a lesson, and the 
pupils will study and draw 
them at their desks. 

Proportions. — An idea 
of its general shape, its ob- 
longness (map cf) must be 
impressed; that it is about 
half as wide as long is 
enough. To say that “In- 
diana is a chimney on the 
slanting roof of a house ” will fix its shape indelibly in the memory. 

Comparison. — The width is about three-fourths the width of Ohio, or as 
wide as from Toledo to the western boundary of Pennsylvania. The teacher 
will call attention to the fact that it extends slightly above and below Ohio. 



9 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


an 


Caution. — It is not advisable to burden the memory with minute pro- 
portions and relations. Let the pupil learn these by drawing them, as he 
does in penmanship. 

The maps that will be made by the pupils will only contain the general 
features; and many of them will be very roughly made; this is as it should 
be. One like this will probably be much beyond the average. (Map io.) 

Along with this crude work, however, the teacher will be surprised to 
see a great activity among the pupils in noticing geographical forms, and 
a great activity at their desks in depicting their knowledge, and finally, 
observable thirst for more knowledge, apparent in their 
study of the geographies, etc. 

To attain these ends the teacher 

1. Must show pleasure and aptness in drawing and 
talking about the maps. 

2. He must teach them to make the forms, for seeing 
is not enough. 

3. He must teach them to talk about the forms ; see- 
ing and making are not enough. 

4. He must encourage, encourage. 

Questions must be asked, to teach them to notice the forms of rivers, 

and location of cities. 

1. What is the shape of the Muskingum ? 

2. Draw the Maumee, the Cuyahoga. 

3. Draw the St. Joseph. 

4. Where is Indianapolis located ? 

5. Draw the northern boundary of Indiana and Ohio, etc. 

By taking things piece-meal (analyzing) the power to see forms will be 
educated. 


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S 








Lesson VI. 

A TALK ABOUT OHIO. 

Object. — To enlarge the pupil's conception of the meaning of the term 
<f State of Ohio." That the pupil may have accurate ideas of the term, the 
teacher will endeavor to give the materials of which it is composed in a 


IO 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


“talk. ” As this talk will be reproduced afterward by the pupils, they will 
take notes. 


The teacher draws the map of Ohio, the pupils naming the boundary- 
lines, the rivers, and the cities. 

“A vast country is represented within these lines. It looks small on 
the blackboard, does it not ? Well, it is 200 miles from Pennsylvania across 
to Indiana and 200 miles from Lake Erie to the Ohio river, where the Big 
Sandy comes in, and three millions of people live in this country. It has 
several very large cities ; Cincinnati has over 250,000 inhabitants. What 
do all these three millions do to get the bread and butter they eat? They 
must work at something. They all have some occupation; some men are 
food raisers, some are miners, some work on the water or on railroads, some 
are makers of things — manufacturers, and some merchants. Besides, there 
are the professions — lawyers, educators, physicians, and clergymen. 

In Ohio there are many farmers. They raise wheat, corn, potatoes, 
barley, oats, etc. They raise a great many grapes in southern Ohio, which 
are eaten or made into wine. They raise flax, too, which is made into 
linen cloth. Shirt bosoms, collars, cuffs, handkerchiefs, and table cloths are 
made of linen. They dig much coal in Ohio, but it is soft coal. They also 
produce much petroleum. 


Turn to your maps and you 
will see that the state is crossed 
by a network of railroads. 
The main lines cross the state 
from east to west, and west to 
( east; this shows the crops of 
the west are taken east, and 
the goods of the east go west. 
Now all these railroads make a 
great deal of business for the 
Ohio people. A great number 
of them are conductors, engin- 
eers, freight agents, ticket 
agents, etc. 

But you see there is Lake Erie on the north, and the Ohio river on the 



1 


Geography by Objective Methods. n 

south; besides, there are two canals — one in the Maumee valley, and the 
other joins the Scioto and Cuyahoga rivers; so that an immense business is 
done on the water. The Ohio people are busy as sailors, captains, freight 
handlers, engineers, and all that. General Garfield was once on the canal, 
you know. 

Then many are busy manufacturing things for those who need them. 
These form a very large part of the population; some are makers of shoes, 
clothes, hats, knives, forks, clocks, dishes, etc. ; makers of houses, furni- 
ture, etc. Very many of the millions in Ohio are manufacturers of one kind 
or another. See your books, slates, pencils, etc. We are surrounded with 
manufactured things. Some people must be very busy. Then some are 
occupied with selling these manufactured things — they are merchants. 
There are many of this class in Ohio. 

Then, too, Ohio has a great many schools ; the state is noted for its 
schools. Think of the boys and girls in the schools. There must be many 
teachers. Then there are preachers, lawyers, and physicians. 

I have told you that Ohio has three millions of people in it. Cincinnati 
is the largest city, the metropolis. It is sometimes called the “ Queen City 
of the West.” It is situated on the Ohio river. It does an immense busi- 
ness in packing pork and sending it to the South, for the South is too busy 
in raising cotton to raise its own pork. It does a great deal of business on 
the river, and by means of railroads. Cleveland is the next in size. This 
city is on the shore of Lake Erie, and does a great business with ships, 
steamboats, and railroads. It sends goods up to the cities on the lakes, 
and brings down iron and copper. This is called “trading.” It refines 
petroleum. It has a monument to Commodore Perry, and one to President 
Garfield. Toledo is well situated for business, the railroads, the lake, the 
canal, all bringing in business, so it is a very active city. Columbus, the 
capital, is near the center of the state. It has a fine state house, where the 
legislature meets to make laws. Dayton is a manufacturing city in the 
Miami valley. 

Ohio was first settled at Marietta, on the Ohio river, in 1788, about one 
hundred years ago. The Indians made a great deal of trouble, because they 
said the land belonged to them. General St. Clair was sent against them, 
and was defeated. General Wayne was then sent, and he was successful 


12 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


in driving them out. He built a fort and named it Fort Defiance — that is 
the reason the town of Defiance is so named. There are many interesting 
things to read about in the early history of Ohio. 

We must, when we see these lines, remember that the state of Ohio is 
full of living, active men and women, boys and girls. Ships are on the 
lake, boats on the rivers, long trains on the railroads, men in wagons on 
the roads and on the farms. Some are reading books and newspapers, some 
making laws, some studying geography in the schools, some keeping the 
wicked imprisoned — and all that. Everyone of the three millions is doing 
something. Think of the forests, the fields of wheat and corn, the houses, 
the cattle, the snug cottages, the great manufactories. But it is the pro- 
portion of good and strong men and women in that three million that makes 
Ohio great. Suppose one in ten is bad ; even with all these resources it 
would be an unhappy state. 

After the “talk” the teacher writes on the blackboard the matters he 
has referred to; the pupils copy them. 


The State of Ohio. 


Food-raisers, 

Miners, 

Manufacturers, 

Merchants, 


Conductors, 

Engineers, 

Agents, 

Sailors, 


occupations. 

Prisoners, 

Captains, 

Freight handlers, 
Teachers, 
i^aw- makers. 


Preachers, 

Lawyers, 

Physicians, 

Pork-packers, 


Wheat, 

Corn, 

Potatoes, 


Barley, 

Oats, 

Grapes, 


PRODUCTS. 

Flax, 

Petroleum, 

Iron, 


Copper, 

Coal. 


MANUFACTURED THINGS. 


Shoes, 

Clothes, 

Hats, 

Shirt-bosoms, 


Collars, 

Cuffs, 

Handkerchiefs, 

Table-cloths, 


5 1 

Pencils. 


Knives, 

Forks, 

Clocks, 

Dishes, 


Harness, 

Furniture, 

Books, 

Slates, 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


13 


Desk Work. — The pupils will have assigned to them a map of Ohio, 
to draw and to write out neatly what they can remember of the 4 ‘talk,” in 
statements. 

These “ statements ” will be handy for reviews. Holding a “state- 
ment” in his hand, the teacher may review the “talk” by questions, and 
inspire the pupils to make further acquisition concerning Ohio. 

You use the term “food-raisers.” Name some food-raisers that you 
know ? What foods do they raise ? You use the term “ miner.” Name 
some miners. What do they mine? You use the term “merchant.” 
Who knows a merchant ? What is his name ? What does he sell ? Where 
is there a manufactory ? etc., etc., etc. 

Let some pupil give expression to his knowledge thus: “I know ten 

food-raisers; their names are, , , , ,” etc. Let another 

say, “I have twelve manufactured articles — a knife, a pencil, a string, a 
shirt, a pair of shoes,” etc. 

Again and again let the teacher turn to this table until it is minutely ex- 
amined and well comprehended. 

Relation of life to the land; or in other words, How is it that people 
live in the state of Ohio ? The teacher will desire to connect a country with 
its people, for the earth is the home of mankind. The map is drawn and 
the question proposed, Why do so many people make homes in Ohio? 
That is, Why do they build houses and live in Ohio ? 

Many answers will be given. The teacher must not tell his pupils; 
they have the knowledge, not in the form he has arranged it in his mind, 
it is true, but, substantially, they know that people come to Ohio and 
build homes, because (1) they can readily get a living, (2) because it is a 
pleasant country, (3) because there are social advantages. 

Taking up the first point, the subject of soil, crops, climate, transpor- 
tation, etc., are discussed. 

Taking up the second, the subject of climate, as to heat and cold, water 
and forests are discussed. 

Taking up the third, the education, refinement, and general good char- 
acter of the people are discussed. 

In such “talks” and discussions as this the main facts about Ohio, 
may be brought up in a familiar way. Afterwards there must be “talks” 
by the pupils. The teacher talks in order to get the pupils to hunt up facts 


H 


Geography by Objective Methods. 

and to talk. In other "‘talks” the subject of the rivers, the elevation, the 
slope indicated by the flow of the rivers, etc., will come up. 

Lesson VII. 

Review. — On the next day the map will be drawn by a pupil and all 
that he can remember of the “talk” will be given. Other pupils will be 
encouraged to add anything else that they may know. Let the question be 
a frequent one, “Who can add anything else?” 

In the way indicated Ohio becomes a theme around which the pupil 
gathers materials from all sources. Thus the “ idea ” of Ohio is developed 
and defined. In this manner all the states should be treated in turn. 

THE PRODUCTS OF OHIO. 

Let the pupils make a case of drawers to hold geographical products; 
label one of these drawers Ohio. Now let the pupils bring in wheat, flour, 
etc., that has come from Ohio. These can be put in small vials and labeled. 
Put on, by all means, the name of the pupil donating the product. 

If nothing better can be had, cigar boxes or envelope boxes may be 
used. They should have covers to exclude the dust; nothing is more dis- 
agreeable than specimens covered with dust. 

Let the teacher start up a correspondence between the pupils of his 
class and those of some teacher in Ohio. (Of course this is on the suppos- 
ition that our class is not residing in Ohio), and let a number of products be 
got by mail, in exchange for products sent. Let a letter be got from a pupil 
describing Ohio as he sees it, and have it read in the class. A book should 
be kept by a class secretary stating what was donated, and by whom, etc. 
Happiness and interest arise from these things, simple as they may seem. 

Lesson VIII. 

“EXPLANATION” OF INDIANA. 

What state on the west of Ohio? 

“Indiana.” 

I will draw, and you may describe. 

When completed, the teacher explains, as in the case of Ohio. 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


15 


Indiana is drawn, and its rivers and cities designated. As in the case 
of Ohio, so the teacher must not attempt at this stage to place more than 
five or six rivers and five or six cities on the map. The cities and rivers 
are written on the blackboard, and copied by the pupil. The drawing of 
the map of Indiana and a “statement ” of what is known, is assigned for 
desk work — to be brought in by each pupil. On another day will come a 
“talk” about Indiana on the same plan as that given on Ohio. This will 
be reproduced by the pupils. Let the teacher remember that he talks to 
get the pupils to talking. Every pupil, even the humblest, must be en- 
couraged to go to the blackboard, to draw a map, to talk about the map. 
Make it a pleasure to do this. Encourage self-effort, originality, and 
industry . 

Review. — After the talk will come reviews of a table of occupations, 
etc., made similar to that of Ohio. 

How People Live in Indiana. — As in the case of Ohio, this subject must 
come up for discussion. Some pupils may know personally a good deal 
about Indiana; or there may be a citizen who has lived there who can be 
interviewed by pupils delegated for the purpose.* 

Products of Indiana. — Let another drawer be selected and labeled 
Indiana , and in it gather everything that can be got that actually has come 
from that state. The suggestions respecting “correspondence” relating to 
Ohio should be followed. News from Indiana should be looked for in the 
newspapers. 

Lesson IX. 

ne teacher begins with Ohio and rapidly draws Indiana and Michigan, 
tne pupils naming the lines. Then the drawing of these states is assigned 
to certain pupils. As they are drawn, criticisms will be made to fix the 
proportions of the state. 

“What of the height and width of Ohio ?” 

(“They are equal.”) 

“But are they in Mary’s map ?” 


* In one of the author’s classes several newspapers published in the state of Indiana 
were obtained from a citizen, and created unbounded interest, and a clergyman who had 
lived in the state offered to come in to be questioned by the class. 


1 6 Geography by Objective Methods. 

“ What of the width and height of Indiana ? ” 

(“ It is about half as wide as high/’) 

‘ ‘ But is this the case in John’s map ? ” 

“ What is the distance from Michigan, southern boundary, to Saginaw 
bay ?” 

(“Half the height of the state.”) 

“What is the distance from end of thumb?” 

(“The same length as the southern boundary.”) 

“ Is it so in Hattie’s map ? ” 

Some pupils may be asked to join Ohio and Indiana. In the criticism 
on these maps to fix the comparative size the teacher will ask : 

“ What is the width of Indiana compared with Ohio?” 

(“It is three-fourths as wide.”) 

“ Is it in Henry’s map ? ” 

Having these few proportions in their minds, the children will easily 
draw the three states. Do not give too minute proportions; this is a rock 
on which many a teacher has foundered. 

For Review Work. — i. Assign Ohio to each of three pupils, to be 
drawn in two minutes. 

2. Assign Indiana to be drawn in two minutes. 

3. Assign Michigan to be drawn in two minutes. 

4. Assign Ohio and Indiana to each of three pupils, to be drawn in 
four minutes. 

5. Assign Ohio and Michigan in the same way. 

6. Assign the three states for five-minute maps. 

These maps will be quite rough at first, but in a very few weeks very 
neat maps will be made in two minutes. 

The teacher assigns Illinois for study. 

The teacher stands at the blackboard and says, “I will draw a map of 
Michigan ; it is north of Indiana and Ohio. You may name the boundaries, ” 
(He draws the eastern boundary.”) 

“Eastern boundary of Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake St. Clair, Lake 
Erie.” 

(He draws the southern boundary.) 

“ Southern boundary of Michigan, separates from Ohio and Indiana.” 


Geography by Objective Methods . 


l 7 




(He draws the western boundary.) 

“Western boundary of Michigan, Lake 
Michigan/’ 

(For the present the upper peninsula is omitted. ) 
The shape, you see, is like a left hand 4 ‘mitten. ” 
(Map 1 1.) 

He erases and draws it again and again, the 
the pupil giving the boundaries. 

Then the rivers and cities are placed; the 
names are given, written on the blackboard, and 
copied by the pupils. 

Volunteers are called for; the state is drawn by 
them ; comments are made and thus the pupils them- 
selves give the proportions of the state. 

Proportions. — The bottom width 
of Michigan and its height to the end of 
the thumb are equal ; and Saginaw bay is 
half way up. 

Review. — The teacher rapidly 
draws Ohio, the pupils naming bound- 
aries, rivers, and cities; he then joins 
the map of Indiana, the pupils naming 
boundaries, rivers, and cities; to this 
he joins the map of Michigan, the 
pupils naming boundaries, rivers, and 
cities. (Map 12.) 

This repetition will familiarize the 
pupils with the great features of each 
state. Questions will follow on the pro- 
portions of each state, so far. 

Comparison. — The western bound- 
ary of Ohio is the same length as the 
southern boundary of Michigan. The 
northern boundary of Ohio reaches to 
the middle of the southern boundary of 


i8 


Geography by Objective Methods. 

Michigan. The teacher can now assign the drawing of these states singly 
and in combination for desk work. 

Lesson XL 

The teacher rapidly draws Ohio and joins to it Indiana, the pupil nam- 
ing the lines. As the northern boundary of Illinois is placed on the board, 
the pupils will promptly say: 

4 ‘ Northern boundary of Illinois; ” because they have caught the idea 
by this time. When the Mississippi river is drawn the pupils say: 

“Mississippi river separates Illinois from Iowa; from Missouri. ” 

When the Ohio river is extended, the pupils say: 

“Ohio river, separates Illinois from Kentucky/’ 

The teacher erases all but Illinois; he points out its general shape, and 
then erases it and proceeds to draw it again. 

Proportions. — The western boundary is like a vase. The state is 
twice as long as wide; it extends as much above Indiana as below it; its 
northern boundary is equal to that of Indiana — three-fourths of Ohio. 

Then a pupil undertakes the drawing; he is encouraged, and is 
followed by as many as the blackboard space will permit. 

If the teacher draws rapidly and requires rapidity, a class of thirty or 
forty may each have an opportunity to draw. 

There should be criticism of the right kind, as to proportions of the 
state, length of rivers, and location of cities. The teacher must not be too 
exacting; always encourage even the least successful. 

Call attention repeatedly to natural features, to the vase-like shape of 
the western boundary* for example; these fasten themselves readily in the 
memory. ' 

Lesson XII. 

Illinois is drawn by the teacher. 

Beginning at the 'northwestern part of the state, the Rock river is 
drawn, and then the Illinois and its two branches, the Fox and Kankakee; 
then the Kaskaskia, the Little Wabash, and the Embarras. As each is 
drawn the teacher gives the name, writes it on the board, the pupils pro- 
nounce it, and copy it on their slates. Then the cities are indicated by 
figures; the teacher places (i) on the map, and the pupils call out: 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


19 


“ Chicago, situated on Lake Michigan, the largest city in Illinois.” He 
marks (2) on the map and gives the name, the pupils calling out : 

“Peoria, on the Illinois river.” He marks (3) and gives the name, the 
pupils calling out : 

“Quincy, on the Mississippi river.” He 
marks (4) and gives the name; they call out: 
“Springfield, the capital, situated on the 
Sangamon river.” He marks (5) and gives the 
name, and they call out: 

“Bloomington.” (Map 13.) 

Lesson XIII. 

Review. — The teacher draws Illinois, and 
takes the pointer, and, facing the class in an easy 
position, describes the map of Illinois, giving the 
marked features (not the minute ones) — its cities, 
its rivers. 

“This is a map of the state of Illinois,” etc. 

1. He points out its shape — its west side is 
like an urn or vase , refers to the bend in the Mis- 
sissippi river where the Missouri enters ; extreme 
length, twice the width; that it extends below 
Indiana as much as it does above it; that its 
southern point is under the middle of northern boundary. 

2. He now draws Illinois again for a repetition lesson. The pupils 
name all the lines and figures. This will be done very rapidly. 

3. (a) Three volunteers will now be called for, to draw Ohio. 

(h) Ohio and Indiana; 

(c) Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois; 

( d ) and Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan. 

While the maps are being drawn, the teacher may ask questions about 
each state of those not then occupied. When maps are ready the pupils 
may be called on to explain them. 

4. The maps being erased, the pupils will draw these maps on their 



20 Geography by Objective Methods. 

I 

slates or on paper, with lead pencil. Passing along, the teacher can criti- 
cise the maps. 

“ Too long for the width.” 

“Illinois river comes in too low down,” etc. 

This will stimulate map-study. 

Volunteers will now be called on to draw Illi- 
nois. ‘ ‘ Who can draw the state of Illinois ? ” Let 
four draw it while the teacher holds his watch in 
his hand, giving two minutes for the work. If 
they produce one like this (map 14) there is 
ground for encouragement. 

Lesson XIV. 

A Talk about Illinois. — The teacher will 
talk about the early history of the state; about 
Chicago, its tunnel for water, its parks, the great 
fire, its fine buildings, etc. The “talk” about 
Ohio will furnish the plan. 

Of this talk the pupils should take notes, that 
they may reproduce it. 

The teacher will ask for pen and ink maps, to be made at home, the 
best to be pasted in the “School Album;” the others to be filed in enve- 
lopes. 

Review. — The teacher draws Ohio, then adds Indiana, then Illinois, 
and pupils draw rivers and locate cities, as called for by other pupils. 

Again a pupil draws Ohio (2 minutes); another annexes Indiana (2 
minutes); another adds Illinois (2 minutes); another Michigan (2 minutes). 
There will be difficulties about the proportion at first, but practice will 
overcome them. 

Lesson XV. 

The teacher draws Ohio. He proceeds then to extend the eastern 
boundary southward, and says : 

“This is the western boundary of Pennsylvania.” (The pupils repeat it.) 

He draws the northern boundary of Pennsylvania, and the pupils say: 

“Lake Erie northern boundary of Pennsylvania.” 



21 


Geography by Objective Methods . 

Then he draws the Delaware river, and the pupils name and describe 
it; then he draws the southern boundary, and the pupils name it. 

Next the rivers are drawn, the Allegheny, the Monongahela, the Sus- 
quehanna, the Juniata, the Schuylkill, the Lehigh. As each is drawn the 
teacher gives the name, and the pupils repeat it; he also writes the names 
on the blackboard, and they copy them on their slates. 

Then the cities are indicated by figures to show their rank in respect 
to population, i Philadelphia, 2 Pittsburg, 3 Allegheny City, 4 Scranton, 5 
Reading, 6 Harrisburg, the capital. These are all written on the black- 
board. 

Proportions. — The northern boundary of Pennsylvania is if times its 
western boundary. 

Comparison. — The western boundary is § (nearly) of the height of Ohio, 
as was shown when Ohio was drawn. 

The same course is then pursued as in the case of Ohio. 



1. The teacher draws, the pupils giving the names. 

2. A pupil draws, and other pupils give the names. 

Criticism will be given on proportion and map. To say that the 
eastern boundary is a W, which begins at Philadelphia , will help its remem- 
brance very much. 


22 Geography by Objective Methods. 

Reviews. — Assigning Pennsylvania for desk work, the teacher then 
turns to deepen and extend the impressions made at former lessons. 

Illinois: Its Products. — A drawer is labeled Illinois, , and to certain 
pupils is assigned the duty of illustrating the state by collecting products of 
the state, as wheat, corn, leaves, dried flowers, minerals, etc., etc. See 
Ohio for details respecting this. 

Illinois: Relation of Life to the State. — The question will be pro- 
posed, “ How do people live in the state of Illinois ? ” Ail the class (teacher 
too) will join in the search for information. Letters from residents will be 
got and information from those who have visited the state; the text-book 
and the cyclopedia will be referred to. 

Caution. — The teacher must not scatter his researches too widely; 
there is danger here. Let him confine his attention to a few subjects. If 
a former resident of the state comes before the class, bring up the questions 
before the class that are to be asked, and have them written out. They 
should be concerning the soil, climate, products, occupations, prosperity of 
the people, schools, churches, character of the people, etc. 

The answers to these questions should be taken down, dated, signed 
by the 4 ‘ secretary/’ and filed away in the “Illinois” drawer. A similar 
course should be pursued with all of the states. 

Some general suggestions. — Five states have been brought before the 
class; three have been studied somewhat (only somewhat) carefully. If 
the teacher has gone to work aright he will have aroused a great spirit of 
industry and investigation. To direct this mighty current properly will 
now demand the highest pedagogical skill. 

PLAN FOR A THIRTY-MINUTE RECITATION. 

1. Five minutes. — The teacher draws the state assigned for the day, 
and assigns the same for desk work. This is the new work. 

2. Ten minutes . — The pupils draw states previously studied; criti- 
cisms follow. 

3. Ten minutes. — A “talk” about a state by the teacher or by the 
pupils, discussions, explanations, etc. 


Geography by Objective Methods. 23 

The “talk” by the teacher will only occur weekly perhaps, while the 
pupils will talk every day. 

4. Five minutes . — This may be devoted to miscellaneous matter; the 
accumulations in the drawer reported on, etc. 

While the pupils are drawing maps, the teacher may question those at 
their seats, and thus economize time. 

Lesson XVI. 

Reviews. — Let the teacher draw all the states thus far studied, begin- 
ning with Ohio. Then he assigns pupils to 

1. Draw Ohio and Pennsylvania. 

2. Draw Ohio and Michigan. 

3. Draw Indiana and Michigan. 

4. Draw Ohio and Indiana. 

5. Draw Indiana and Illinois. 

6. Draw Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Indiana. 

7. Draw Ohio, Pennsylvania, Indiana, and Illinois. 

It is a good idea to keep up the plan of calling for volunteers. “ Who 
can draw Ohio and Pennsylvania?” From the number who raise their 
hands, select according to judgment. If five minutes is fixed upon for the 
drawing, at the end of that time let all stop. Those who do not complete 
their maps, will be made to feel the need of more desk work. 

A Talk about Michigan. — If there is a promptness in the drawing of 
the above maps, the teacher can take up this topic for the remainder of the 
recitation. 

Michigan, its Products. — This will be assigned as a subject to be 
studied. (See Ohio, Illinois, etc.) 

Several lessons may be needed on Pennsylvania, and on reviews of 
other states; certainly the teacher should not go on until every pupil can 
draw and describe the state, already studied, with freedom, (not fullness) ; 
that they never will attain to. 

A Talk about Pennsylvania. — At the proper time the teacher will give an 
interesting talk about Pennsylvania. The rivers, the cities, the early history, 
William Penn, the coal, the iron, the mountains, etc., will furnish subjects. 


24 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


Products of Pennsylvania. — This subject will be taken up as indicated 
in the case of Ohio. It need not, however, be taken up at this point; see 
suggestions for recitations in Lesson XV. The plan is, as stated in the pref- 
ace, to add to the knowledge of a state, day by day, week by week, month 
by month; to incorporate this knowledge with what has been previously 
acquired by reviews. So that the ' ‘ talk ” upon Pennsylvania may not take 
place until some days after the map of Pennsylvania is first placed by the 
teacher on the blackboard. There will be a drawer set apart for this state, 
of course. 

Lesson XVII. 

The teacher draws Pennsylvania, and then annexes New Jersey; the 
names of the boundaries, rivers, and cities are given; the pupils repeat them, 

and as they are written on the 
blackboard copy them. (Map 
1 6 . ) 

The cities of New Jersey 
are: i Newark, 2 Jersey City, 3 
Paterson, 4 Camden, 5 Hobo- 
ken, 6 Trenton, the capital. 

Comparison. — New Jersey 
extends below Pennsylvania as 
much as Pennsylvania extends 
above New Jersey. 

Proportion. — New Jersey 
is nearly four times as long as 
wide. The same course is then pursued as with the other states. 

Lesson XVIII. 

The teacher draws Maryland and Delaware, merely in outline. (Map 17.) 

To say that the former resembles a monkey-wrench and the latter a shoe 
with its toe pressed into Pennsylvania, will help the memory wonderfully. 

Having given a clear idea of the form of Maryland, the cities: 1 Balti- 
more, 2 Frederick, 3 Annapolis, the capital, are placed. 



25 


Geography by Objective Methods ♦ 


In Delaware, i Wilmington, 2 Dover, are located. 



Proportion. — The width of Maryland is about ^ of its upper boundary. 
Its northern boundary is f of the southern boundary of Pennsylvania. Its thin 
part comes under the center of Pennsylvania’s straight southern boundary. 

1. Ohio maps are then 
assigned to pupils. 

2. Ohio and Pennsyl- 
vania. 

3. Ohio, Pennsylvania, 
and New Jersey. 

4. Pennsylvania, New 
Jersey, Maryland, and 
Delaware. 


Lesson XIX. 


Kentucky. — The teacher begins with Ohio, then adds Indiana, then 
Illinois, then extending the Mississippi river he draws the southern boundary 
of Kentucky, then puts in the Big Sandy river and the Cumberland mountains. 

He draws the Tennessee, Cumberland, Green, Kentucky, and Licking 
rivers, and locates the cities, 1 Louisville, 2 Newport, 3 Lexington, 4 Pad- 
ucah, 5 Frankfort, the capital. 



Proportion. — The length 
of the southern boundary 
of Kentucky is twice its 
greatest width. 

The shape of Kentucky is 
that of a shoe . (Map 18.) 

As the southern boundary 
of Kentucky is a very im- 
portant line it is well to re- 
member it is below Cincin- 
nati the length of Ohio’s western boundary. That is, we double Ohio’s 
western boundary southward from Ohio’s northern boundary to find it. 


26 


Geography by Objective Methods. 



Virginia. — Let the teacher draw a triangle thus: First draw a line, say 
a foot long, and divide it into four parts. At the first point erect a perpen- 
dicular half as long as the bottom line. Sketch in 
the other two sides of the triangle. (Map 19.) 

As Virginia is a difficult state to draw, repeat this 
until the proportions are fixed. With this triangle 
on the blackboard, sketch in the east and west 
boundaries. Point out the three steps and semicircle in the western 
boundary. (Map 20.) 

When this is firm in 
the memory complete the 
map ; place the rivers 
Rappahannock, York, 

James, and Shenandoah ; 
and the cities, 1 Rich- / 

mond the capital, 2 Nor- 
folk, 3 Petersburg, 4 
Lynchburg, 5 Alexandria, 
and 6 Portsmouth. (The ^ 


/ / 

y' 



Shenandoah river enters 
the Potomac about half-way in the southern boundary of Maryland. (Map 2 1 . ) 

Review. — This map will 
need to be drawn again 
and again. It is easier to 


get an idea of Virginia from 
its connection with Mary- 
land, West Virginia, Ohio, 
Kentucky, and Delaware, 
than when alone, but this 
plan will give its shape. 
Impress the fact that it is a 
triangle . 

The ‘ ‘ T alk. ” — After the form of V irginia is familiar bearin with a ‘ ‘ talk/' 



27 


Geography by Objective Methods . 

for it must be noticed that a talk helps to fix the form of the map, and the 
map, again, locating the incidents, fixes them firmly in the memory. 
Virginia is a grand state for “talks; ” its history, its great men, its battle- 
fields, etc., give it an imperishable fame. The teacher should make much 
of this state. 

Lesson XX. 

The teacher begins with Ohio, and adds Pennsylvania; then the Big 
Sandy river, the western boundary of Kentucky, and the southern boundary 
of Virginia. To get this 
he extends Ohio, western 
boundary, by its own r 
length, as has been shown. | 

Out of this he cuts Mary- \ 
land, Delaware, Virginia, \ 
and West Virginia. (Map 
22.) 

Note the three steps and 
a semicircle in the eastern 
boundary of West Virginia. 

He draws the Kanawha 
river, and locates the cities : 
i Wheeling, the capital, 2 
Parkersburg, and 3 Charles- 
ton. 

Note the two pan- 
handles, one in West Vir- 
ginia and one in Maryland. 

West Virginia is a parallelogram in general, with two additions and two 
right angles cutting into it on the north. (See Map 22.) 

Lesson XXI. 

The teacher may desiretodraw Virginians/, and then adds Maryland, Del- 
aware, Pennsylvania, Ohio, etc. It is a reverse process. Can this be done? 



28 


Geography by Objective Methods. 

The difficulty that arises in all map drawing of two states or more, is 
to get them in the same proportion or scale. For example, if he begins 
with Virginia, he may get Pennsylvania too large or too small. If it is too 
large in proportion, then Ohio is pushed out of place, and so of the rest. 
To avoid this, the teachers have unnecessarily burdened their pupils’ mem- 
ories with minute measurements. 

Let us begin with Virginia. A line is drawn on the blackboard, say a 
foot long, and a triangle constructed, and Virginia drawn (see maps 19 and 
20). At the top of the perpendicular is the middle of the straight part of 
Pennsylvania; draw a line parallel with the southern boundary of Virginia; 
its east point is over the south-east point of Virginia. Now remember the 

proportions already given; draw Penn- 
sylvania and the states of Maryland, 
Delaware, New Jersey, and West Virginia. 
(Map 23.) 

Review. — The teacher calls for eleven 
volunteers. When they are arranged at 
the blackboard, he calls out rapidly: 

“ Mary, take Ohio.” 

“John, take New Jersey,” etc. 

When finished, descriptions follow, 
and they return to their seats, and eleven 
others take their places, and the same maps are drawn. 

A Grand Review of Ten States. 

The teacher draws a line about three feet long to represent the general 
northern boundary of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. 

1. He sketches Ohio about a foot square. 

2. Fixes the mouth of the Big Sandy river, (a) 

3. Lays out Indiana and Illinois, noting “vase form.” 

4. Finds southern boundary of Kentucky ; (b) is as far from Cincinnati 
as length of western boundary of Ohio, (d) The “ Cairo point” is under 
the middle of northern boundary of Illinois. 

5. Sketches in Pennsylvania. 



2 9 


Geography by Objective Methods. 

6 Extends southern boundary of Virginia; (c) is under south-east 
corner of Pennsylvania. 

7. Sketches in New Jersey, Maryland, and Delaware. 

All of these points have 
been already given. This is 
to review them, so as the 
teacher draws he will repeat 
them, (Map 24.) 

Having this outline, call 
for volunteers. 

1. To put in five rivers 
as called for by pupils. 

2. To put in five cities 
as called for. 

3. To put in five mountain ranges. 

4. To put in ten cities. 

5. To put in ten rivers. 

6. To point out ten bays, etc., etc. 

This plan of reviewing on outlines is very pleasing to pupils, and very 

profitable. 

I The drawing of these ten states will involve the pla- 

l , cing of fifty towns, fifty rivers, and a dozen lakes. 

\/ The northern boundary of these states is about 1,000 

miles in length. 

A week can be profitably spent in reviewing these 
ten states. “ Talks” should be had; the drawers 
examined, etc. 

Radiating Reviews. 

The teacher draws thus : (Map 25.) 

If this is not recognized, he extends the rivers, and adds a town or two. 
A sharp-eyed pupil will cry out: 

“Cincinnati.” 

“Yes, it is Cincinnati.” 



30 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


He goes on drawing, and as he draws the pupils name the lines. Soon 
there will be quite a map; the towns Newport, Covington, Hamilton, 
Dayton, etc., will appearand the rivers Licking, Great Miami, Kentucky, 
Scioto, etc. 

Now a pupil will be set to gather all that can be said into a methodical 
statement. He takes the pointer and begins : 

“This is a map of Cincinnati and the surrounding country, towns, and 
rivers. Cincinnati is situated on the north bank of the Ohio river,” etc. 

A review like this can be condensed into five minutes or expanded into 
fifteen. New facts can be added to those already learned. The pupils will 
gather facts from the cyclopedia, if there is a demand for them. The 
teacher can ask for a written statement with map, to be handed in on some 
fixed day. 

(See Map 25^.) V . V 

Again the teacher draws: (Map 26.) 

If this is not recognized he adds 
other features, and watches his class : 

“What! you do not recognize 
this old friend ? Why it is a famous 
place! I think I am not good at draw- 
ing portraits.” 

“Pittsburg! Pittsburg!” will be K 

heard. ^ 

Then a pupil is called on to tell what he can about Pittsburg. The 
teacher then calls on another to add to the map he has begun. In a few 
t nv* minutes there is before the class an arrangement of lines that 
will wonderfully interest the young people. (Map 27.) 

Pittsburg, Allegheny City, Washington, Wheeling, 
Waynesburg, 'Cumberland, Marietta, Zanesville, Ravenna, 
Beaver, Franklin, and Oil City are described. The surrounding 
country, so to speak, is traversed by the young geographer. 
Nor is a long time needed; five minutes can be spent, or thirty, as the 
teacher wills. It is not objectional to have the geographies open before the 
class ; they soon begin to use them rightly — as reference books . 



A 2 



3i 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


xY 




At some time the early history of Pittsburg should be carefully studied. 
It is full of interest. It should be hinted at here: 

“Scholars, you have no idea how interesting the 
past of Pittsburg is. Some day I must tell you .” 

Again the teacher may draw thus: (Map 28.) 

This is so indefinite that many guesses are hazarded. 

Marietta, for example. Then he adds a few more 
lines. They now recognize the features, and their 
countenances become wild with joy. “Phila- 
delphia!” they cry. 

“Yes, it is Philadelphia. I will begin anew 
(erasing the lines on the board). John you may 

describe as I draw.” 

Then the teacher draws and the 
pupils talk. In two or three minutes 

a dozen of the outlying cities are placed on the board ; also 
boundaries, rivers, etc. (Map 29.) 

After it is completed to this extent a 
pupil takes the pointer and talks about 

as follows : 

“This is a map of Philadelphia and the surround- 
ing country. It is the largest city in Pennsylvania; 
it is largely engaged in manufactures ('Take notes/ 
says the teacher) ; the word means * City of Brotherly 
Love; ’ it contains many important buildings. Girard 
College, Independence Hall, and the Mint. The 
Centennial Exhibition was held here in 1876. It is on 
both sides of the Schuylkill river; it has a beautiful 
park called Fairmount park. Across the river is Cam- 
den; if we go down, there is Wilmington in Dela- 
ware, noted for its car manufactories ; up the Schuyl- 
kill river is Norristown, and further up is Reading. 

If we go up the Delaware river we reach Burlington, then Trenton the 
capital of New Jersey; here Washington crossed the Delaware,” etc., etc. 



32 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


At the end the teacher asks: 

4 ‘Who has taken notes? Well, Mary.” 

“What does he mean by manufactories?” This being answered, 

another asks : 

“What is Independence Hall?” 
In this way he is obliged to define the 
terms he uses. This makes him get 
exact information. Then others add 
points she has left out. 

The plan of the lesson has been, 
in general: 

(1) New work. 

(2) Stating and restating the 
knowledge they already have acquired. 



(Fig. 1.) 

i 

! 

2. 


(3) Building the new in with the old. 

New York. — Let us suppose the 
teacher gave out New York for study 
at the last lesson. Standing at the 
blackboard he begins by drawing 
two oblongs (2, 3, figure 1, both of 
the same length, and a little more 
than i as high as wide). r 

On these he puts another oblong ) 

( 1 ) which is J higher than the others. 

He then cuts off the triangles (a) l 
and ( b ), and adds the triangle ( c ), [ - 
and thus gives an idea of the shape 
of New York state. (Fig. 2.) This 
is erased and re-drawn. Then a 
pupil tries it; several try it. This 
gives the general form. 

1. He draws again a line say one foot in length (AB) 1. 

2. He cuts off J of it, CB. 




O 




t 

i 

1 

j 

$ 

1 

t 

9 

i 

» 

1 

1 


1 

1 

t 

4 


1 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


33 


3 

4 


5 

6 

7 

8 


He draws BD=AC. 
BE=CB. 


i i 


( i 


if 


i i 


i i 


i i 


i i 


i t 


He draws 


GF at ¥ way in AB. 

DL=CB ; it is J of DE. 

KH a little below i way in GF. 

RA and KS, cutting off J. 

This he tells as be draws ; he draws as he tells. (Fig. 3.) 
the map several times. A pupil tries it. Several try it. 

This description will seem 
difficult to read , but it is not diffi- 
cult to draw ; all descriptions of 
drawings seem blind when read. 
Let the teacher talk and draw and 
question. 

New York is somewhat irreg- 
ular in shape, but it is so impor- 
tant a state that extra lessons must 
be given if needed. 

In the next lesson ask : 

First, for the general shape of 
the state as one would for a capi- 
tal M. It should be engraved in 
the mind. 

Second, let the state be drawn 
so as to present the general feat- 
ures. Beware of being too minute and technical at this stage. Work upon 
the general features thus outlined, adding something day by day, but do it 
gradually. Do not work too long on it at one time. Turn back and draw 
the states already gone over. The pupils will study the form at their seats. 
It must be noted here, that when they go to their seats to study New York, 
they have the proportions before them ; they do not go to work to draw it 
as a new form. Its general shape is before them. It will save their labor 
very greatly to give the general shape in this way. 



34 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


Lesson XXI. 

New York ( continued ). — The general shape of New York is drawn ; 
then the state is drawn beside it. Then the rivers are placed, then the cities, 
and lakes, and the names given and written down, and copied by pupils. 

It is erased and drawn again. Then the pupils draw it. 

Talk about New York. — No state will give the teacher such an oppor- 
tunity to interest the pupils in geography study as New York : (i) Early 
history, (2) the Indian tribes, (3) the battles of the Revolution, etc., (4) 
the great cities, (5) its great men. Several days can be spent in gathering 
materials by the class. At some special 
time the entire recitation should be upon 
New York. 

Review. — The teacher draws New 
York, then adds Pennsylvania and New 
Jersey. He calls on a pupil to add Ohio. 

(Map 30). With this outline before the 
class an opportunity for criticism is given. 

This can be brought up by questions. 

1. The length and height of New 
York? 

2. The position of the eastern shore of Lake Ontario ? 

3. The triangle in the southeast ? etc., etc. 

By thus analysing the elements of the form of the state, the pupils will 
see where the defects in their drawings are. 

Difficulties in Proportion. 

As difficulties will arise in proportioning the space among the states 
(Map 30) note these points : 

1. The length of Pennsylvania is fixed when the southern boundary 
of New York is drawn. 

2. The width of Pennsylvania is what of its length ? 

3. The width of New Jersey is what of its length ? 



35 


Geography by Objective Methods. 

4. New Jersey extends above and below Pennsylvania how? 

5. The length of the eastern boundary of Ohio is known 
when the western boundary of Pennsylvania is drawn. 

6. The width and height of Ohio are what ? 

All these proportions were given when each state was 

taken up. It is not new knowledge that is required. 

Review of Eleven States. 

At this point review all the states thus far studied. 

1. Begin with Ohio, and have all the other states added. 

2. Begin with New York, and have all the other states 
added. 

New England. — 1. The teacher draws an oblong a little more than 
twice as high as wide. (Map 31.) Divides 
the sides into five parts by points, and 
draws two lines across. Boston is at mid- 
dle of east side of second part. 

2. Now he adds the Cape Cod part (a 
clothes hook). 

3. The part B. 

4. “ “ C. 

5. “ “ D. 

6. “ “ E. 

Call a pupil to the blackboard, and let 
another pupil name rivers to be located. 

Locate cities in the same way. 

Locate lakes in the same way. 

Draw and talk; talk and draw. 

7. Cut off F. 

8. Put in Narragansett bay and New- 
port island. (Map 32.) 

By thus analyzing the somewhat irregu- 
lar form of these five states, it will be found 
that the difficulties in drawing them will disappear. 



M. 31. 


36 Geography by Objective Methods. 

Erasing the map the teacher draws it again, beginning with the oblong; 
talking as he takes the eight steps, the map again appears. The eye of the 
pupil thus becomes trained to see shapes and proportions. Next, one of 
the most apt is called to the blackboard to draw while the teacher names 
the steps, the other pupils drawing on paper or on their slates. 

Now it is given out as a lesson, 

{ and the class turn to reviews. 

t New England ( continued ). — At 

* the next lesson the teacher takes the 

I eight steps, then sketches the five 

j north-east states, places five rivers 

j and locates five cities, the pupils 

\ giving the names, also the bays and 

0 i 7 u.hl capes. Then the pupils draw the 

1 map, and place the rivers and cities. 

(Map At another lesson the 

history of the country, the battles, 
the works of art, productions, etc., 
are discussed. The names are 
written on the blackboard and 
copied, and the class turn to reviews. 
The teacher has two objects: (i) To 
have the class study the subject (2) 
to strengthen former impressions. 

Radiating Reviews.—. 

— The teacher draws. 

(Map 33.) 

The pupils recog- 
nize the sketch and answer, “Chicago, , 

Lake Michigan, northern boundary of 1 
Illinois, western boundary of Indiana/’ He continues, and this sketch 
quickly appears. (Map 34.) 

Then pupils are called to the blackboard ; one describes Chicago, others 
add to this description ; in a similar way follows descriptions of Rockford, 




37 


Geography by Objective Methods . 




Racine, Aurora, Rock Island, Michigan City, Galena, etc. Lake Michigan, and 
the Rock, Illinois, Kansas, Kankakee, and Chicago rivers are also described. 

May the pupils use their text-books during the exercises? Cer- 
tainly ; it is really a time of study . 

If they can draw without the text- 
book it is pretty certain they have 
learned the lesson thoroughly. 

River Studies. — The teacher 
draws (map 35), and may remark: 

“You have seen this river on 
your maps hundreds of times.” 

Some one will soon name it cor- 
rectly. 

“Oswego river.” Then let 
other features be added, and the pupils, if possible, name the cities, lakes, 
rivers, mountains, as they are put in; if they cannot, the teacher says, 
sr' “Oswego” or “Syracuse.” The sketch completed 

will be this. (Map 36.) 

Such a sketch placed on the blackboard will soon 
jj ^ make them familiar with central New York. The 

(t A \V teacher will keep up a running talk about the cities and 

" l ^ towns, the flour and starch mills of Oswego, the salt 

wells of Syracuse, the canal and railroad connections, productions, climate, 
manufactures, schools, etc. 

At another time the pupils will take the 
pointer and do the talking. The best teachers 
only talk to get their pupils talking. 

A Lesson in Guessing. — The teacher may 
propose that each pupil bring in a river profile 
on a piece of paper three inches square. Tak- 
ing them up at class time he says: 

“This is the Muskingum river.” 

“This I cannot tell,” etc. 


,8 


Geography by Objective Methods. 



They are distributed again, but not to their owners. Each is to guess 
the river and complete the sketch — as well as he can. This trial will 

mightily stir up a study of the map. 

River Profiles, ( Continued .) — At another lesson the 
teacher draws a river; the Delaware, for example. 

The pupils guess its name, and they complete and describe 
it. 

It will be seen that the reviews pursued in this way tend 
to fix the acquired knowledge firmly in the mind. They re- 
present their knowledge; this is a 
pleasure. What we learn with pleasure we can 
learn easily. * 

A Radiating Review. — The teacher draws. 

(Map 37.) 

Before he can hardly get so far the class will 
say, “New York.” He erases and starts again in 
the middle of the board, and quickly a sketch like 
this appears. (Map 38.) 

Then will follow a description by the pupils. 

If there is room on the blackboard, let the state 
lines of Connecticut, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania 

be drawn. 




;b 


H 


State of Maine. — The teacher draws a perpen- 
dicular line AB, say a foot long; from its top, extends a 
horizontal line BE, somewhat longer to the right from 
the center of the perpendicular line CS, of the same 
r length of first line, and connects as below. Then add 

^ y triangle, whose top is an S. This gives the general 

form of Maine. There are four triangles in this state, 
and one triangle cut off of it. (Map 39.) 

Having impressed this form by repeated drawings, 
let the pupils try it. When the general form is gained, 
erase AE, and draw in its place the coast line; change 


i ** 3 ? 


\* 

v 


/ 




39 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


the other boundaries as needed. (Map 40.) This should take five minutes 

or less. Give it out for study. Turn to re- 
views. 

The Six New England States. — Let the 
teacher begin with an oblong twice as high 
as wide. (See p. 35.) 

After drawing the five states as then 
drawn, Maine is annexed. (Map 41.) 

The general structure will easily be re- 
membered. To remember the position of 
rivers, bays, towns, lakes, mountains, there 
q must be much repetition, drawing, talking, 
and composing. Criticising will compel 
studying, and thus fasten the facts. 



-Ask for neat maps 

/*n 


Pen and Ink Maps. 
on paper three 
inches square, of 
one of the seven- 
teen states al- 
ready drawn. 

Put the best in the “ geographical album.” 

Reviews. — Let the teacher draw the Mau- 
mee river, and let a pupil complete the state. 

Let the teacher draw the Hudson river, 
and a pupil complete the state. 

In this way take up the rivers Rock, 

White, Juniata, Passaic, James, etc. 

A Geographical Album. — A scrap-bock, 
made of large manilla sheets, 12* 12 inches, is 
almost indispensable in the school-room. It 
will have many uses. 

1. Place "in it weekly the best 3x3 inch pen and ink maps ; let the 



40 


Geography by Objective Methods. 

class decide by vote which they think best. (Let the teacher reserve a veto 
power, giving his reasons.) Have the pupil’s name on each. 

2. Put in it the quickest made map of, say Ohio, provided it is not a 
scrawl. 

3. Paste in a statement by a pupil of the doings of the class at some 
certain time ; it must be a lively description. 

4. Let some visitor to the school when at home, write out his impres- 
sions of the class ; let it be read and put in the album. 

By thus using it, it will become a precious volume. 

New England ( Re-studied ). 

Reviews. — A pupil is set to drawing New England. While he is doing 
this another is set to write a list of the cities thus : 


CITIES OF NEW ENGLAND. 


Maine. 

N. H. 

Mass. 

Conn. 

R. I. 

Vermont. 

Portland. 

Dover. 

Boston. 

Hartford. 

Providence. 

Rutland. 


Another writes a list of the rivers in a similar way : 


RIVERS OF NEW ENGLAND. 

Maine. I N. H. I Mass. I Conn. I R. I. I Vermont. 

While this is being done the teacher questions the rest of the class as 
to what they know personally of New England. 

How many of you have been in New England ? As several have been, 
evidently, he says, “ 1 want to learn all I can about New England, from 
what you yourselves have found out. As we have not time to hear every- 
one, let all get their knowledge boiled down , as we may say. Arrange it 
under several heads, for that is the business way. 

1. How far is it from us ? 

2. What kind of a country as to its surface? 

3. What kind of a climate has it ? 

4. What kind of people as to their cnaracter r 


4 1 


Geography by Objective Methods. 

5. What kind of people as to their nationality? 

6. What of its prosperity ? 

7. What do its inhabitants do ? 

8. What are its largest cities ? 

9. What are the striking features of its history ? 

10. * Anecdotes. 

Under question No. 1, the teacher will show how to measure on the 
map with a strip of paper, the distance from their place to Boston or 
Springfield. 

Under question No. 2, (1) let each one who has seen the country give 
his impressions; (2) next let those who have been told by those who have 
seen give their information. 

Under question No. 3 let there be a division, (1) the winter climate; 
(2) the summer climate. 

But by this time the pupils at the blackboard have finished, and the 
teacher turns the class to their work. 

The first describes the New England states. 

The second names the cities. 

The third names the rivers. 

The bays, islands, capes, etc., will be named. 

If there is time the discussion about New England is resumed; if not it 
is taken up again at the next lesson. To answer these ten questions and 
thoroughly discuss them will consume a week. Under No. 7 let pupils 
bring pieces of cloth made in New England ; the shops and stores will 
supply them. Let them tell what utensils, etc., they have seen that were 
made in New England. 

ACCUMULATING MATERIALS. 

It is supposed that the plan of having a box for each state, as proposed 
for Ohio, has been carried out for each state. If not a great mistake has 
been made, and it should be rectified at once. No teacher can teach geo- 
graphy, in any true sense, who has not had his class accumulate materials 
and who does not make a business of accumulating. Geography is a 
knowledge of the earth ; the earth must be studied ; books will help, but 
never take the place of a direct study of the earth itself. 


42 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


Review. — The outline of New York is drawn and New England is 
added. (Map.) This must be drawn several times by the teacher; then 
by the pupils. The object is to stamp the form clearly in the memory. 


Note. — The northern 
boundary of Connecticut ex- 
tended, will be the southern 
boundarv of New York. 

New England ( Continued ). 


/ 



I 

l 




Now it will be 

well to take one ) \ 

state at a time. 

Suppose it is Con- fl 

necticut. 

i. It can be drawn by r , 

the teacher several times, the V 

pupils naming the boundaries, etc. 2. The teacher will add the rivers. 3. 
Then he will place the cities. 4. Then will follow a “ talk.” 5. Then the 
pupils will draw and describe. 



J 


Cutting Out Maps. 

Let the teacher supply the class with pieces of manilla paper, say a 
foot square. Let them draw on these the map of Ohio. (See map 1 — 
Lesson 1.) Then cut out the shape. On this write (1) the names of the 
rivers ; (2) the names of the cities ; (3) the productions ; (4) all facts they 
can remember concerning Ohio. 

Reviews. — In these reviews it will be found most valuable that the 
pupils ask questions. Suppose that N. C., Tenn., and S. C. are drawn in 
outline ; a pupil at the blackboard will ask some other pupil: 

What river shall I put in the northeast corner of the state ? 

“ Chowan/' (He places it.) 

What river is this ? (making one enter the Albemarle Sound.) 

“ Roanoke.” 


43 


Geography by Objective Methods . 

Another pupil is selected and he asks: 

What range of mountains is this (pointing) ? 

“Allegheny,” etc. 

The teacher draws Tennessee and the pupils name the lines. 

He extends the southern boundary until it equals the northern bound- 
ary, and divides this line into three equal parts. He extends the Missis- 
sippi river, draws the Savannah, and then sketches the three states of Miss., 
Ala., and Ga. (Map 42.) Re-draw, leaving out N. C. and S. C. 



Erasing them he draws again, giving outlines , one or two points re- 
garding proportions, for example, that the height is about twice the width, 
except Georgia; calls attention to the part in the southeast of Miss, and the 
southwest of Ala. that touch the Gulf ; marks in two rivers and two cities in 
each state, and then leaves the class to study up what they need to know 
further; for he will find that the plan of teaching here suggested really 
marks out a plan for study. They will look at the shape of the states, the 
location and forms of rivers, and the location of cities. At the next lesson 
the teacher draws the three states of Miss., Ala., and Ga. ; puts in the main 
rivers. As they are placed the pupils name them, and write the names. 


44 Geography by Objective Methods. 

Then he draws the outline of Florida and places the rivers and cities. 
(Map 43.) 

Proportion. — It is about as long 
north and south as it is east and west; 
the width of the peninsula part is about 
one-third of its length. 

Comparison. — Its length is about the 
distance of its northern boundary, from 
that important line the northern bound- 
ary of Tenn. 

Reviews. — Tenn.; N. C. ; N. C and 
S. C. ; Ga. and S. C. ; Ga. and Ala. ; Ala. 
and Miss.; Ala., Ga., and Fla. 

The Mississippi River. 

This is a landmark of the first im- 
portance in the study of the geography 
of the United States and v/ill require special attention. 

The teacher draws a perpendicular line, say three feet long, and divides 
it into eight equal parts; (first halving it, and then halving these parts, etc). 
Then he draws the river. As he draws he talks: 

1 — Shows Itasca Lake. 

2 — '' St. Paul. 

3 — “ Yankton. 

4 — '' Iowa, southern boundary. 

5 — “ St. Louis. 

6 — Is just below Missouri's southern boundary. 

7 — Shows Indian Territory boundary. 

8 — “ Red River entering the Mississippi, and also southern 

boundary of Mississippi. 

9 — '' Gulf coast; also Galveston. 

At 3 the Miss, river is one div. east from the line. You see it has 
five parts: (1) The reverse'; (2) the eastward slant; (3) the' 'vase 



Geography by Objective Methods. 


45 


form ” ; (4) the long west slant ; (5) the short east slant. Cairo is directly 
above the mouth of the river. 

The teacher having thus analyzed the river form, the pupils draw on their 
slates and paper the perpendicular line dividing it into 
eights, and then proceed to draw the river. 

Then volunteers are called to the blackboard. 

For some time the perpendicular line will be found 
needful to proportion the parts of the river properly. 

It has other uses as will be seen later. 

But the teacher only begins the study of the river 
at this lesson ; to know so great a river will require 
weeks of study, so he simply starts his class in the 
proper direction and then turns to reviews. 

At another lesson the perpendicular is drawn and 
the river drawn beside it. Discussion and drawing 
follow. The shape of this river will not be more diffi- 
cult to memorize than the German capital M, if the 
teacher presents one difficulty at a time. By drawing 
it and calling attention to the three slants and the “ vase 
form,” and showing their proportions the pupils will 
soon master its form. It is a common fault not to get 
the first slant correct. Notice that it is a slant of 
about forty-five degrees ; that is, the distance of the 
river from No. 3 is equal to one of the divisions. 

Reviews. — Let states that have not been studied 
for some time be now re-studied. (1) Begin with 
Ohio ; (2) Ohio and Ky. ; (3) Ohio, Ky., and Tenn. ; 

(4) Ohio, Ind., 111 ., Ky., &c., &c. 

The Mississippi River. — While they are taking up 
this new work the teacher draws it again. First, I draw 
the perpendicular and divide it into eight equal parts. 

I start in Lake Itasca and make a reverse S. This brings 
me to St. Paul. I now start east, so that when oppo- 
site No. 3, I am distant from it one of the divisions of the perpendicular. 



46 


Geography by Objective Methods. 

Now I begin the “vase form” shape of western boundary of 111 ., and 
continue it to Cairo, which is about half-way between 5 and C. 

Now I slant west to opposite No. 8, the southwest corner of Miss. 

Then I slant east to opposite No. 9, and reach the delta. 

You see there are five parts : The reverses. The east slant. The “vase 
form.” The west slant. The short east slant. The reverse S takes 1-8. 
The east slant takes 1-8. The “vase form ” takes 2-8 and a half. The east 
slant takes 1-8. 

It is best to state a few points, and re-state them again and again. 
Avoid the danger of being too minute. It is sufficient if the typical form be 
impressed without all the turns and bends. 

1. Let a perpendicular line, one foot long, be drawn and the river 
sketched beside it. 2. Draw the line 6 inches, then 9, then 1 5. 

Draw attention to the bend made in the Miss, where the Mo. river 
strikes it ; to the effect of the Red river upon its course ; also of the Ohio. 
To the position of St. Louis. 



Wisconsin.— The state ofWis. with the northern peninsula of Mich, is 
quite irregular in outline. Perhaps it will aid its remembrance to say, the 
general shape of Wis. is that of a stove-pipe elbow with the corner cut off 
(the smoke comes in from 111 . and pours into Minn). (Map 47). 

Proportion. — Its southern boundary is equal to the distance from Lake 


47 


Geography by Objective Methods . 


Superior to the Miss, river, that is, the openings in the stove-pipe are equal. 
Its extreme width equals the extreme height. First, give the general shape 
and put in the three important rivers ; assign it for study. On another 
day draw it with more care ; but these rough-looking drawings have 
immense value. 

The upper peninsula of Mich, is a cap with plumes stuck on the corner 
of the stove-pipe. This will help recall its irregular form (map 47). 


Wis. 


Reviews. — Ohio, Ind., Mich.; 111 . and Wis.; Mich, and Wis.; 111 . and 


•c. 


y 9 
* - — — * ■ * ~\» • « 


vs 


V. - — 



A 




The Atlantic Coast Line . — The 
teacher sketches 

1. The oblong for New England. 

2. Then the oblong for Pa. (A 
equals B, C is £ of B, E equals F.) 

3. Then locates the “impor-* 

tant line. ' ; y 

4. Locates the southeast corner < 

of Va. i 

(All of these points have been ^ 
previously given (map 48) in draw- 
ing the maps ; they now come up 
under new relations only.) 

5. Then the coast line is sketched. 

As the teacher draws, the pupils name the gulfs and bays. 

This coast line must be drawn again and again until it is well fixed in 
the memory. 

The teacher must stand at the blackboard with confidence, and draw 
with decision. He may not make every line accurate ; he may draw with 
the map in his hand — it is not so impressive, of course. 

The five points given above, if followed one after another, will aid 
much; the teacher must think of the map in parts (the oblong for N. E., 
the oblong for Pa., &c.); and not as a whole. By drawing again and again 
the relation of one state to another gets into the brain. 


4 s 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


It is again drawn at another lesson, and nine important rivers that dis- 
charge into the ocean are located: the Hudson, Delaware, Susquehanna, 
Potomac, James, Penobscot, Kennebec, Merrimac, and Connecticut. 



(Map 49.) 


At another time it is drawn and 
the cities of New York, Brooklyn, 
Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, 
Norfolk, Portsmouth, and Richmond 
are located. 

It is again drawn and the state 
boundaries marked. 


Suggested Exercises. — Let five pu- 
pils draw this coast line; let another 
pupil call for the name of a river as 
Merrimac. Let all five draw it. Then 
another may describe it as “ The Merri- 
mac rises in the White mountains in N. 
H., and flows south, then east, and 
discharges into the Atlantic/’ Then 
the James’ may be called for. 

Another pupil may call for a city, as Philadel- 
phia; all will place it as they deem right. Then 
one may describe it ; as, 4 ‘ Philadelphia is on the 
west bank of the Delaware, just north of where 
the Schuylkill enters, &c. 


The South Atlantic Coast Line. — The “ important line” cuts 

the Atlantic coast line in the middle. 


Note — That after passing Cape Hatteras, the “ half-way point,” aslant 
southwest is made of nearly 45 0 , so that northeastern Florida is under the 
western boundary of Penn. (See Florida.) 

A course similar to that on the north Atlantic coast will be followed 
for the south Atlantic coast. (1) Locate the rivers; (2) Locate the cities. 


49 


Geography by Objective Methods . 

River Reviews. — The teacher draws this outline (map 50),^ It is so 
peculiar that it will be recognized instantly. 4 ‘The Hudson River. (Atten- 
tion will be called to the foot on which N. Y. City is situated,) What is this 

river? “The Mohawk/' &c., &c. Under their 
deft fingers it will appear as (map 51). Then pupils 
are called to expand the sketch. Then descriptions 
and talks follow. 

A Geography Topic.— At some recitation all 
the information that has been gained about New 
York City should be 
grouped together. One 
entire session should be 
spent in gathering it un- 
der titles, as history, pop- 
ulation, noted structures, 
etc. It will be a good 
thing to ask some pupil 
who has visited the city 
to tell about it. 

The teacher must invest the earth with all 
the interest possible ; geography is the earth 
considered as the home of man. Hence, in this 
map of New York, let the city be spoken of 
historically ; let the capture by the British ; the 
prison-ships ; the hanging of Andre; the first 
steam-boat, &c., come before the class as vivid- 
ly as possible. 

This presentation of geographical subjects, 
under “topics/' is an excellent way to sum 
up the knowledge of the pupil. If properly 
instructed the pupils will be ready, at any time, 
to take a topic or talk descriptive of New York, 

Boston, Albany. They may form an interesting part of the exercises on 
Friday afternoons. 




50 


Geography by Objective Methods . 



The teacher draws the 
following sketch (52). 

There will be some diffi- 
culty in locating it. Let the 
pupil study over it for several 




days if necessary ; it will 
cause close map study. 
When they can name it, let 
them complete it, and talk 
about it. (Map 53.) 

Radiating Reviews. — 
Richmond. — Let the teacher 
draw this sketch (map 54), 
and when the pupils have 
named it, let them finish and 
describe it. (Map 55.) 

1. Have the names of all 
cities and rivers written 
on the board. 

2. Ask for pen-maps 
and descriptions of 
Richmond with no aid 
from books. 


5i 


Geography by Objective Methods. 

River Profiles. — The Potomac. — The teacher draws this sketch 
(map 56). 

It may seem almost impossible, but 
some keen-eyed pupil, very likely a very 
youthful one, will see the marked features of 
the Potomac river. 

Children soon learn that rivers have as 
distinct profiles as human countenances. 

The teacher now adds the City of Wash- 
ington, and when the pupils name it, he 
assigns to one the task of writing out an 
account of Washington for the morrow. He 
then goes on to add other features and assigns 

one to each pupil to write out. In a few minutes this sketch will be on the 

To write up the sub- 
jects here assigned will 
demand much use of 
the cyclopaedia. In this 
way the pupils will be 
taught to use a book as 
a source of knowledge. 
The next lesson will be 
devoted to a reading of 
the essays. 

These essays will 
show whether the pup- 
ils have been aroused to 
investigate the subject 
One case is recalled 
where a pupil wrote to 
a stranger in Washing- 
ton, asking for informa- 
tion about the city, and was able*to present something the rest did not have! 




52 


Geography by Objective Methods. 

River Profiles. — The White River. — The teacher draws this sketch 
(58), and when recognized the pupils complete it, and it will become (59). 

1. Indiana may be completed ; its history referred to. 

2. Kentucky may be added, and other 
states if there is room on the blackboard. 

3. The railroad connections may be 
shown. 

To draw In- 1 s ^ 1 

diana, and to re- \ J J 

cite about it and * 1 

the surrounding 
states, will con- 
sume not more 
than ten or 
twelve minutes; 
for, as soon as a 
mark is made, 
there is a name 
given. This 
allows time 
to be given 
to reviews, 
a very im- 
portant consideration. Two minutes is 
enough to draw a state ; with ten or 
twelve minutes a great deal of ground may be covered. It will be noted 
that a pupil who draws Ohio, and puts in five rivers and five towns, re- 
views Ohio if he does not speak a word. 

Class Talks. — While pupils are drawing other rivers or states, the 
teacher, allowing (if he chooses) the books to be open, starts up a study 
of Indiana. Who can tell something about Indianapolis? New Albany? 
Which way does the state slope ? Is it a prairie state ? What kind of trees ? 
What of the “sink holes”? Where is there a large cave? Business of 
the people mainly ? 





53 


Geography by Objective Methods. 

% 

River Profiles. — The Delaware. — The teacher draws this sketch 
(map 60). When recognized the pupils complete it. Additions, large or 
small, may be made ; and state lines added. (Map 61.) 

For a beginning, an exercise of five 
minutes will be enough. When they 
are ready to discuss the subject some- 
what largely, the entire recitation may 
be spent on one river. 

John may describe the Delaware 
river. 

“ The Delaware rises in the state of 
New York ; it has two sources called 
the east and west branches, — both start 
in the Catskill mountains. It Hows 
mainly south, and passes through the 
Blue Ridge at Water Gap, a very pic- 
turesque place. The first town of any 
importance is Port Jervis; next Easton, 

Trenton, and Philadelphia. Trenton is 
the capital of New Jersey; here Wash- 
ington crossed the Delaware to attack 
the British. Philadelphia is a large city ; 
here the Declaration of Independence 
was signed. ” 

4 ‘Any additional matter?” 

1. Trenton has many potteries. 

2. Camden is opposite Philadelphia. 

Large ships come up to Philadelphia, 

4. They raise cranberries. 

5. Newark has india-rubber factories. 

6. Lead pencils are made in Jersey City — a large factory. 

7. Silk is made in Paterson. 

8. The southern coast is covered with low pine trees and scrub oaks. 

9. Zinc mines are in the northern part. 




54 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


River Profiles {Continued), — The Tennessee. 

The teacher draws this network of rivers (map 62). 

Now rivers have profiles as certainly as 




the faces of our friends, and this com- 
bination of lines will soon be interpreted . 

by the young geographers. \ B 

It is territory they have been over 
and they will soon fill out the lines. 

(Map 63.) 

Let them talk about it too. £ S~ 

River Profiles. — The 
St. John’s and St. Mary’s 

Rivers. — The teacher - 

draws this sketch (map 0 0 

64). 

When recognized it 
is completed by pupils. 

(Map 65.) 

These maps will bring up St. 

Augustine, about which the pupils can- 
not but be intensely interested. 

The productions, the climate, the 
soil, the history, the towns — all will 
be topics for the young geographers. 




Geography by Objective Methods. 






At another time the pupils 
are called on for profiles, and 
this (map 66) is placed on the 
blackboard by one. When 
recognized others complete it. 
All discuss it. In a few minutes 
this part of the map of Michigan 
will appear. (Map 67.) 

Uses of Rivers. — The teacher draws the 
following sketch (map 68), and points out that 
rivers are really drains; that they resemble 

eave troughs. Then he pro- 
ceeds to draw the tributaries ; 
he asks for the slope ; then 
the direction and extent. 
(Map 69.) 

In this way some idea 
will be got of the “land slopes.” 

“Which way does the land slope 
here ?” (Pointing to northern Ohio.) 

“To the North.” 

“How do you know that ? ” 

“Because the river runs north.” 
Attention should thus be directed to all 
the land slopes. For example, the 
pointer is made to move slowly from 
Detroit to Saginaw, and the question 
is, “Well, who has a thought?” 

Some bright pupil says, “You go up 
an elevation and reach a summit level, 
and then descend.” “How do you 
know that?” “Because there is a 
place where rivers flow east and 
west.” 


56 


Geography by Objective Methods . 


River Profiles. — Many devices may be 
employed to interest the pupils in the study 
of river form. For example, a pupil is asked 
to puzzle the class with a profile of a river 
they have studied. He produces map 7c. 

When guessed he adds the surrounding 
country (map 71). 

Pupils will be ready to give these pro- 
files at any time, if they are encouraged to 
do so. 

River Systems. — The teacher draws 
(map 72). When it is recognized he pro- 
ceeds to add the tributaries; they are named 
as he draws them ; each pupil writes the 
name on his slate. Then follows a discus- 
sion of the Ohio River System. The slopes 
of the land should be referred to. (Map 73.) 
They can almost be seen by noting the direc- 
tion of the river. 







57 


Geography by Objective Methods . 

The Square of States.— The teacher draws a square, say three feet, on 
each side. At the northwest corner is Dubuque; at the northeast is New 
York City, (more exactly, a point about seventy-five miles above New 
York City) ; and the southwest corner is the southwest corner of Miss. 
In the center is the " important line.” Now cut off the triangle in the 
southeast and it gives the space that 16 states occupy (map 74) ; and 
by a few modelings, all these states will appear. Remember that all these 

states have been studied, 
drawn, and re-drawn ; 
the art now is to relate 
them to each other prop- 
erly. In the top line is 
the northern boundary of 
Ohio ; the state occupies 
the middle. 

1. Cut out a square, one 
foot cn each side, for a 
general expression of Ohio. 

2. Sketch in the Missis- 
sippi river, (bearing in 
mind that the western 
boundary of 111. is above 
that of Ohio; but this can- 
not be forgotten for it has 
been drawn in conjunction 
with Ohio, many times, 
seep. 17). Remember the 

4 ‘ vase form, ” and that the last short ‘ 1 east slant ” starts at the southwest cor- 
ner of this square. Remember, too, that the top line cuts through the most 
eastern part of the bulge in the "vase” in Illinois. The middle of the third 
division of the perpendicular line — the "Mississippi guide line” — is here (see 
p. 45). The Ohio comes in where the "important line” touches the Missis- 
sippi. Bearing these points in view — all of which have been given — the 
teacher can boldly proceed. 



58 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


3. Sketch in the Ohio river and lakes Michigan and Erie, and draw 
the southern boundary of Tenn., and we have map 75. 

Now a few properly directed lines will divide all this portion into the 
states that compose it. What is needed is to proceed by the few guide 
points already given. If the attempt is to memorize the' map bodily few 
will succeed. The plan has been to have but two or three things to mem- 
orize about a state; not to be minute, but broad. 


8 . 

9 - 

10. 

1 1. 

12. 


On p. 29 ten of these 
sixteen states were 
drawn ; if needful, re- 
view them before pro- 
ceeding further. 

On p. 43 six of these 
sixteen states were 
drawn ; if needful review 
them. 

The next step will 
be to carve out this terri- 
tory proportionately . 

4. Separate Indiana 
from Illinois. 

5. Separate Ken- 
tucky from Virginia. 

6. Separate Tenn. 
from North Carolina. 

7. Draw the Pearl 
and Perdido rivers and 
Gulf coast of Miss, and 
Ala. 

Draw the Chattahoochee and southern boundary of Ala. and Ga. 
Draw Savannah river and Atlantic coast. 

Recall the Va. triangle (p. 26). 

Put in Penn, and N. J. 

Fill in W. Va., Md., and Del. 



59 


Geography by Objective Methods . 


The pupils have in their minds a pretty good idea of the shape of each 
of the states. The teacher may ask, Who can see Ohio ? Ind. ? 111. ? etc. 

A pupil may, with a pointer, show where each state is to be as the 
names are called. For practical work five large 3x3 squares may be put on 
the blackboard, and pupils set to fill up the space with sixteen states. 
While this is being done the teacher may assign : j an( j j nc} . 

Ohio and Penn.; 111., 
!nd., Ohio. 

2. Ky. and V a . ; 
Va., W. Va., Md. and 
Del. 

3. Tenn. and N. C. 

4. N. C. and S. C. 

5. Miss, and Ala. ; 
Ala. and Ga. 

This filling up the 
square should be given 
out as a lesson ; let one 
pupil at a time produce 
on the blackboard until it 
is mastered. Much use 
may be made of it. By 
daily steps the pupils 
will learn the shapes and 
positions of sixteen im- 
portant states, and to 
locate the main rivers 
and cities and moun- 
tains in them. 

When mastered, ask one pupil to place the Alleghany and Blue Ridge 
Mountains, then the Cumberland range; another to put in the rivers that 
flow east from these; another, those that flow west. At another time the 
important cities. 

While this is being learned the other states may be reviewed. 



6o 


Geography by Objective Methods. 

The Mississippi River Again, — It is supposed that the teacher, by this 
time, has drawn the Miss, river over and over until its form and proportions 




have become familiar. He now draws it again to connect with it the ma- 
terials already given. He draws a perpendicular and divides it into eighths. 


Geography by Objective Methods. 61 

i* Just below 3 is the northern boundary of Ills. 

2. Just above 6 is the “ important line ” ; a great guide line. 

3. At 8 is the short bend to the east — the southern boundary of Miss. 
(Map 77.) See also p. 45. 

The East Mississippi River States. — The teacher draws the Miss, per- 
pendicular and divides it into eighths, and marks where the states on the 
east touch it. 

Illinois’ northern boundary is at neck of vase. 

Miss, southern boundary is at foot of long slant. 

St. Croix river comes in just below St. Paul. 

Just above No. 6 is the “ important line,” the 36° jo line and marks the 
northern boundary of Tenn. 

All these are already known, they come up now, under different cir- 
cumstances. From these points the states lying on the east bank of the 
Miss, may be sketched in, thus (map 78). 

1. Rivers may be placed. 

2. Cities located. 

3. “ Talks ” about the soil of the country; its history and produc- 
tions ; and its people can be had. 

Opportunity for repetition with novelty is thus afforded. 

Reviews. — Having this outline the teacher plans to interest his pupils in 
reviewing, and re-stating the knowledge that is not, as yet, firmly fixed in 
their minds. 

“ Mary, you may complete Wisconsin.” When this is done the pupils 
name the rivers and cities. Then, “John, you may complete Illinois,” etc. 
In ten minutes there will be maps of the five states of Wis. , 111 ., Ky., 
Tenn., and Miss., with the main rivers and cities. 

Other pupils are called to the board and Ind., O., Mich., Ala., Ga., and 
Fla. are sketched out. All this is creative, and is of course interesting, as all 
creative work is. 

The rules to be observed are : (1) give a proper amount of the new ; (2) 
join the old to this new — incorporate the new with old ; (3) create interest 
by having the children represent their knowledge. 


62 


Geography by Objective Methods. 



The Mississippi River Towns. — For another lesson the teacher draws 
the Mississippi river; shows the state boundaries and locates Minneapolis 
Then he turns to the class and asks: “Mary, tell us 

about Minneapolis.” When she has finished, each of 
the rest will add something she may have omitted. In 
the same way he takes up St. Paul, Dubuque, Galena, ?p 

St. Louis, Cairo, Memphis, Vicks- 
burg, Natchez, Baton Rouge, and New Orleans. 

Louisiana. — The teacher draws (map 79) and 
says : “This was the scene of a great battle in 1812. 
To-morrow we will have something more to say 
about it.” 

On the morrow it will be drawn and extensions 
made on all sides. (Map 80.) 

Eastern Tributaries of the Mississippi. — The 
teacher 
may draw 
the Missis- 
sippi river, 
and ask for 
seven of the 
eastern tributaries, 

— the Ohio, Illinois, 

Rock, St. Croix, 

Kaskaskia, Wiscon- 
sin, and Yazoo 
rivers. (Map 81.) 

They will be named 
as he draws them. 

The pupils should 
be encouraged to draw the Miss, river 
3, 4, s, 6, &c., inches long; they will soon get the shape of this river in 
their minds. The method used on p. 45 will be found a great aid. 




6 3 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


West of Mississippi States. 



five 

are 


rivers sketched in. (Map 83.) 


Iowa. — The teacher draws a 
square. It is fortunate, from a map- 
drawing point of view, that the square 
for Iowa is of the same size as the 
square for Ohio. On the east he 
adds the “vase-like” form of upper 
111. ; the greatest eastern bulge is at the 
middle of the east side. ‘ ‘ This eastern 
bulge is a pug nose, and the Des 
Moines river is the mouth.” (Map 
82.) On the west he places the 
Missouri and Big Sioux rivers . 

It is erased and re-drawn, and 
The names of the rivers and cities 


written and copied. Reviews follow. 


Iowa and Illinois. — 
First the square for Iowa is 
sketched ; then the additions 
made, as in the last lesson ; 
then 111. is annexed. Rivers 
are placed by the pupils, 
cities are located. 

Reviews follow ; for 
example, the teacher as- 
signs Iowa and 111. to one 
pupil. 

2. Iowa, 111., and Ind. 
to another. 

3. Iowa, 111., and Wis., 



4. River profiles are given. 


etc. 


64 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


Minnesota. — The time to go slow has 
come; make the advance lessons short; incor* 
porate them with what has been learned. [ 
Minn, is drawn in rude outline (map 84). , 


Proportions. — The height of Minn, is if . 
its bottom line. Its eastern boundary is the i I 

shape of the bottom of a support to a stool or j 5 *+ I 

bench . Be sure to impress the general form * \ 

firmly before any attempt is made to put in | ( 

the details. Then add 5 or 6 rivers (map 1 \ 

85) ; the pupil naming them as they are * n 

drawn. When this is done, Minnesota is | \ 

ready to be incorporated with other known i N 



things. Notice, that the incor- 
porating of this partly unknown 
state with those already known, 
makes it become more perfectly 
known. 

One pupil draws Minn. ; 
another adds Iowa ; another adds 
III. ; another Ind., &c. 

Again, one pupil draws Iowa ; 
another adds Minn. ; another 
adds Wis. ; another adds 111. ; 
&c. 

Each map should be drawn 
. in two minutes or less. 

A pupil may draw a map 
of Minn, (map 85), and describe 
it ; all who are not at the 
blackboard listening and help- 
ing. 


65 


Geography by Objective Methods. 

Building Up. — Let the teacher draw a horizontal line on the blackboard; 
and draw a square for Iowa. Lay off f of the width of this square for 111., 
and J for Ind., then lay off the square for Ohio ; sketch in the Miss, river ; 
sketch in the Ohio river (map 86). Most of this is familiar ground, it is simply 
presented under new aspects and in new relations. It is now built together. 
When the outline is firmly impressed, gradually add the details. This is a 
very beautiful map and easy to draw ; by it a review of weeks of study may 
be made. 

More Reviews. — Put Iowa, then 111., then Wis., then Minn, on the 
blackboard ; then call up 
a pupil and let others 
ask him to locate a few 
rivers ; then in a similar 
way let another locate a 
few cities, not too 
many. Go slowly on 
the new ground. 

The steps will now 
be more rapidly given 
as the attempt here is 
simply to exhibit the 
method ; but let the 
teacher himself go slowly ; his classes cannot go at the pace of this book — 
this is meant for teachers. 

This map (86), when learned may be a nucleus for reviewing nearly all 
the work that has been done. 

Remember that one who draws or does a thing knows that thing. If 
a pupil can draw a horse he must have studied the horse. 

1. Let one pupil draw map 86, and another add Minn. 

2. Let another join on Wis. 

3. Let another join Ky. 

4. Let another join Tenn. 

All pupils not at the blackboard can draw the same on paper. 

Rivers and towns can be located. 



66 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


Western Mississippi Tier of States. — Let the teacher draw a perpen- 
dicular line for the Mississippi river and divide it into eighths. Opposite 
division No. 3 is Sioux City, on the third great bend of the Missouri river ; 

farther on is Yankton. From No. 3 measure west 
1-2, and carry up a perpendicular. These two per- 
pendiculars will mark (closely) the western bound- 
aries of Minn., Iowa, Mo., Ark., and La. 

Above division No. 3 draw southern boundary of 
Minn. 

At division No. 4 draw southern boundary of la. 
Above division No. 6 draw southern boundary 
of Ark. 

This tier of states is then easily sketched. (Map 

88 .) 

Let the states thus drawn be left for study. 

Assign for the next lesson a study of one of the 
states. Begin with Mo. ; when it is mastered take 
up another, and so on. 

Draw the outline of the west Mississippi tier of 
states, and let the pupils place the main rivers. 
(Map 89.) 

Draw it again, and let ten of the main cities be 
located. Have this west tier of states drawn again 
and again until it is engraved in the minds. It is a 
very interesting and important part of the United 
States. 

With this tier of states on the blackboard, draw 
a horizontal line through Iowa eastward. 

1. Let one pupil connect and build on 111 . 

2. Another will add Ind. and Ohio, &c., &c. 
This tier of states takes but little room, and 

every member of the class can draw it on the blackboard. 

Talks. — While one is drawing let another tell what he can about La., 
for example — the products, the vegetation, etc. 



67 


Geography by Objective Methods. 


The East and West Tier of the Mississippi States. 



1. Draw a perpendicular. 

2. Divide into eighths. 

3. Draw the Mississippi river. 

4. Draw the important line (36*30') 
above No. 6. 

5. At No. 4 is the southern boundary 
of Iowa. 

6. At No. 3 is the northern boundary 
of 111. 

7. The southern boundary of Tenn. 
is 1-2 way in Ark. 

8. The southern boundary of Miss, 
is at the last bend in the Miss, river. 

9. At No. 2 is St. Paul and there the 
St. Croix river enters. 

10. A little above the “ important 
line” the Ohio river enters (map 89). 

Most of these points have been given 
before ; they are now quoted simply for 
review, with these the east and west tier 
of states may be drawn and a new field 
of work will open. 


Reviews. — Let the class give a part 
of the recitation for several days to the 
Mississippi river and the bordering states. 

(Map 89.) An enlarged field for reviews 
will open as each state is added, for 
example : Mo., Iowa and 111. ; Mo. and Ark. ; Ark. and La. ; Ark., La. and 
Miss.; Mo., 111. and Ind. ; Iowa, 111. and Wis. ; Ohio, Ind., 111. and Iowa ; 
Ohio, Ind. and Mich. ; Ohio, Ind., 111., Mich, and Wis. 

Some of these may be three-minute maps ; some four minutes ; some 
five minutes. Single states can be drawn in one minute. 


6S 


Geography by Objective Methods. 

The Great Tier of States. — The teacher will see by this time the 
application of a general method : (i) A state is drawn ; (2) it is next con- 

nected with one previously drawn. Thus the new is connected with the 
old ; the unknown with the known. 

But this may be done on a large plan ; several states may be treated as 
the unknown . Here is an example : 

The teacher draws a long line on the blackboard. On this he con- 
structs a square for Iowa; so that the line passes through the middle of 
this square. 

For Nebraska he measures on to the left 1 2-3 of Iowa. 

For Wyoming “ “ 12-3 of Iowa. 



For Cal., Nev., and Utah 3 times. 

At another lesson he draws the line again. (Map 91.) He completes 
Iowa (as this has been studied ; also Minn). Then he sketches in Neb., 
Wyo., etc., and gives them out for study. 

Through the middle of Iowa draw a perpendicular line, and divide it 
into eighths (see p. 66). These two lines will now be guide lines for an 
immense amount of geographical study. 

1. The several states that lie above the horizontal may be sketched in. 

2. The line may be extended east and the states of 111 ., Ind., &c. may 
be added. 

3. Then turning to the perpendicular line the states of Iowa, Minn., 
Mo., Ark., &c. may be added. (See p. 66.) 

4. The pupils will be anxious of themselves to fill out the vacant 
* spots. 


Geography by Objective Methods . 69 

At the succeeding lessons he will be in the manner just described, 
complete the states sketched, adding rivers and cities. (Map 92.) 



All of this will require several days, and as the tendency will be to go 
too fast, a brake must be put on the wheels. 

Review. — Have talks on the other states ; gather material for the 
boxes; have pen and ink maps of the Eastern states ; let them color 
their maps ; continue the study of river profiles ; have radiating reviews. 
Let them stop all advance lessons when there is more material than can be 
assimilated . 

In these reviews, say of a state like Kentucky, let the proportions given 
in drawing that state be repeated. In that way they become a part of 
what is learned concerning the state. What has been said as to making 
the statements cf proportion few in number must be borne in mind all the 
time — the tendency is to overburden here. 


70 


Geography by Objective Methods. 

The 36° 30' Line of States. 

Let the teacher draw a horizontal line and lay off Ark., giving the same 
width to Indian Ty., and as much to Public Lands. 

Make New Mexico and Arizona the same as Ark. (Map 93.) 



Let him complete Ark., for this is familiar ground. Let this stay on the 
blackboard. 

Then let him put in some of the states and rivers daily until the 
whole section is mastered. (Map 94.) 

Put another sketch on the blackboard, and let pupils put in rivers and 
towns as they are called for. 



7i 


Geography by Objective Methods. 

The Two Great Lines and Mississippi River. — Draw a long horizontal 
line on the blackboard. At its right hand end construct the square for 
Iowa. This, as has been shown, will give the proportions of the other states. 

Lay off the proportions of Neb., Wyo., etc., as has been shown. Now 
in giving the position of the “ important line ” (36? 30') when Ohio was 
discussed it was shown to be distant from the northwestern corner of Ohio 
twice Ohio’s western boundary. As the northern boundary of Ohio goes 
through the center of Iowa the “ important line ” will be 1 1-2 the height 



of Iowa down. This “important line” steps up at Indian Ty. By draw- 
ing these two you will have the great structure lines of the western Miss, 
states and territories. (See map 9s.) 

The teacher draws a horizontal line; constructs a square for !owa; 
from its top goes down twice the Iowa square ; through this draws 
another parallel to the first ; draws the Mississippi river so as to touch 
Iowa (see the Mississippi river). Then the states are sketched in. 


7 2 


Geography by Objective Methods. 

If the blackboard is large enough (after the location of the states west 
of the Mississippi river is clearly understood), these lines may be extended 
east and the states already studied related to them. (Map 96.) 

This will be a work that will charmingly review the lessons learned. 
The old will come under new forms. It will demand several days thus to 
construct the main part of the U. S. on these three lines; therefore go 
slowly. 



After drawing one horizontal line constructing the Iowa square, extend 
the line east and draw the Ohio square; from this line go down twice the 
side of this square, and the “ important line ” is found. This has been 
given before. Then draw the Mississippi guide line and divide into eighths. 


73 


Geography by Objective Methods . 

The Great Lakes will furnish another fine theme for reviews. The 
teacher draws the outline; he asks for a pupil to come to the blackboard. 
Then another pupil asks that the St. Joseph’s river be drawn; another for 
the Saginaw, and so on. On another day the rivers and towns lying adja- 
cent are placed. Discussions concerning their uses, etc. follow. (Map 97.) 
State lines are then added. (See p. 58.) 

In this way the northern boundary of the U. S. will be studied ; the 
lakes, rivers, bays, cities, etc. 



It is well to keep this outline on the blackboard, and let it be made the 
subject of a week’s review. A horizontal line can be drawn through the 
south shore of Lake Erie, and the state of Ohio drawn, and the other states 
added. 

There will now be no need of further suggestions ; the teacher will see 


74 


Geography by Objective Methods. 

how he can move forward and take his class with him. He will invent 
other plans for drawing and combining the states; his pupils will invent 
more than he will if he calls on them to do it. 

Other River Profiles. — Many other river profiles may be selected 
beside those suggested in this book, as : 

San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers, Colorado river, Missouri river, 
Arkansas river, Red river, Rio Grande. 

Mountain systems form excellent topics. The White, Catskill, Alle- 
gheny, Rocky, Pike’s Peak, Mt. Washington, etc. 

Suppose, for example, the teacher sketches out Pike’s Peak and one or 
two of the rivers, and just hints at the mountains and lets his pupils guess 
what is meant by the lines. The keen-eyed ones will comprehend when a 
dozen strokes are made and cry out “ Pike’s Peak.” It will be found that 
this method sharpens the sight remarkably. 

Then add rivers, towns, and mountains, and talk — describe, and do it 
well too. The teacher should refer to Denver, Leadville, Colorado Springs, 
the Mountain of the Holy Cross, &c. If possible he should have photo- 
graphs to exhibit. A whole day could be spent in this locality alone in his- 
tory, description, and adventure. It is more interesting than a novel. 

The teacher may ask, how long will it take to go over the U. S. in this 
way ? It is not easy to answer this. The writer used to unite all of his 
classes, young and old, and spend the entire year on Geography, after the 
U. S. had been studied, taking up the general features of North America, 
South America, Europe, Asia, and Africa. The next year the same pupils, 
with the exception of the highest class, would take up the same subject ; 
often the higher pupils would beg permission to join the class ; they never 
tired of drawing and talking about geographical forms. So that he can 
say that a year will enable the teacher to accomplish a vast amount in geo- 
graphy. This method lays a fine platform for the study of Physical Geo- 
graphy by the higher classes. 


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HEADQUARTERS 


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